Jain
scriptures are called sruta, sutra or
more popularly agama. It is believed
that they embody the teachings Tirthankara Sri Mahavira imparted to his first
apostles, the Gandadharas. This transmission of spiritual wisdom commences when
Indrabuti Gautama, the first and the foremost Ganadhara, after duly saluting
the Lord asks a question: Kim tattam?,
What is the essence of beings?’ Lord Mahavir replies: ‘ Uppannei va, vigamei va, dhuvei va, Every thing takes birth;
everything perishes; every thing is permanent.’ This answer is called tripadi,
three-fold, on the basis of which twelve principal scriptures of Jains, called Angas, have been composed.
The twelve angas
are: (1) Acaranga (2) Sutrakrta (3)
Sthana (4) Samavaya (5) Bhagavati (6)
Jnata dharma Katha (7) Upasake Dasa (8) Anta-Krta Dasa (9) Anuttapapattika (10)
Prasna Vyakarana (11) Vipaka and (12) Krstivada.
The
Angas are generally in the form of a sermon in which the narrator begins by
saying: ‘ I have heard thus.’ It is believed that the narrator is Sudharama
Swami, one of the eleven apostles who were present during the dialogues between
the Lord and Gautama. He later narrated it to his disciple, Jambu Swami.
Besides
the angas, Uttaradhyayana (believed to be the last sermon of Lord Maharavir),
and Dashavaikalika (composed by Arya Shayyambhava, the fourth acharya after
Sudharma Swami,) are highly rated and widely studied by all monks. Kalpa Sutra,
the life of Lord Mahavir, is also widely read.
Jain
scriptures are classified variously. The earliest classification divides them
into anga-pravista and anga-bahya, the latter being further sub-divided into
avasyaka and avasyaka-vyatirikta. According to another, later but more popular
classification there are six groups; (1) 12 angas (2) 12 upangas (3) 6 cheda
sutras (4) 4 mula sutras (5) 2 culika sutras and (6) 10 Prakirnakas. From the
standpoint of subject-matter they are divided into four anuyogas: (1)
Caranakarannuyoga deals with the rules and regulations governing life of the
Jain ascetic. (2) Dharma- Kathanuyoga has mythology, religious stories,
parables etc. (3) Ganitanuyoga is associated with calculuations of time,
duration of cycles etc. (4) Dravyanuyoga deals with philosophy, metaphysics,
logic etc.
Jain
scriputures are in Ardhamagadhi or Prakrt, which was the language of the common
people at the time of Lord Mahavir. Hindi and English translations of the
important scriptures are now available.
The
Acaranga
Sutra is the most important of the Angas. Written in ancient Prakrt, it
is considered the oldest Jain scripture extant. It consists of two books called
Sruta- skandhas which differ in style and the manner in which the subject is
treated. The sub-divisions of the second book are called culas or appendices.
It is believed that only the first book is really old and contains the
authentic teachings of Lord Mahavir, while the second one has been added to it
at a later date.
Synopsis of the contents of the
Acaranga
The
first book has eight chapters and lays down the philosophical precepts and
psychological reasons for moral conduct of an ascetic. The first chapter of the
first book is called ‘ Sastraparijna, the Knowledge of Weapons [ of violence ].
Weapons may be physical or, more important, mental. By these are meant the
misconceptions and motives, prompted by which violence to six types of beings
is committed. Parijna is twofold: comprehension and renunciation of everything
that hurts other beings.
The
second chapter is entitled ‘Loka-Vijaya’,
the Conquest of the World. Father, mother, wife, children, wealth etc.
constitute the external world of an individual. But there is also an internal
world made up of attachment, aversion, love, hatred, desires, and ego, and the
real conquest consists in overcoming these evil tendencies. This is the central
theme of the second chapter.
The
third chapter called ‘ Sitosniya,’
Heat and Cold, urges an aspirant to forbear with patience and equanimity all
obstacles which inevitably come in the spiritual path in the form of favourable
(sita) and unfavourable (usna) physical and mental circumstances. It also deals
with key- concepts like lack of vigilance (pramada), attachment, and the four
kasayas, viz. anger, egoism, deceit and greed.
The
fourth chapter is ‘Samyaktva’ Righteousness.
Non-violence is the essence of righteousness, and faith, knowledge and conduct
which conduce to non-violence constitute the true path to righteosness. Having
thus defined righeousness, the author proceeds to discuss the concepts of asrava and parisrava. The means by which one falls into the bondage of Karma
are called asrava, and those which help
one to get rid of it are called parisrava.
‘Lokasara, the Essence of the World, is
the title of the fifth chapter. Self-control and abstinence from indulgence in
sense-pleasures is the true essence of
one’s life. After describing the ill effects of lust and greed, the author
urges the aspirant to practice self-control, be vigilant and relinquish
possessions. The chapter ends with a poetic description of a free soul.
The
principle of removal of the impurities caused by past Karmas is called
dhutavada, which forms the subject matter of the next chapter called ‘Dhuta’, cleaning. Giving up attachment
to friends and relatives, to one’s physical body and belongings, to name, fame
and prosperity, and relinquishing all actions promoted by desire and
selfishness these are the means by which the desired purgation can be achieved.
The seventh
chapter called ‘ Mahaparijna’ is now extinct.
The
eighth chapter of ‘Vimoksa’
Liberation from bondage, lays down detailed rules of conduct for monks with
regard to food, clothing, treatment during illness, protection from heat, cold
and rain, as also the manner in which they should behave with monks having
different outlook. It also advises monks, weakened by old age and no longer
able to bear the rigours of monastic life, to reduce their diet and finally
give up the body while fasting with courage and equanimity.
The
last chapter called ‘Upadhana Sruta’,
the Pillar of Righteousness, describes the superhuman austerities, the glorious
sufferings and forbearance of Lord Mahavir. It serves well to illustrate and
set a high example of a true ascetic’s life.
The
second book consists of four chapters called culas. The first and second culas
describe food, clothing, utensils etc. of a monk and lay down elaborate rules
and regulations for his day to day life. The third cula contains the life of Lord Mahavir. The latter part of the
third cula deals with the five great vows with their twenty-five clauses. The
fourth part has twelve versus eulogizing the monastic ideal.
The Philosophy of the Acaranga
1. Self–enquiry,
the beginning of spiritual life. Although the Acaranga is not a
philosophical treatise, it contains enough material to form the basis of a
coherent philosophical system of thought. It begins on a high philosophical
note with an enquiry into such fundamental questions as to who one is and where
one comes from. ‘Some do not know whether their soul is born again and again or
not, nor what they were formerly, nor what they will become after death’
(1.1.1). This enquiry into the nature of the self is stressed as the mother of
all knowledge in the Acaranga. It is said: samsayam
parijanato samsare parinnate bhavati, ‘ One conversant with this doubt
knows the nature of the world’ (1.5.1). This spirit of enquiry and thirst for
knowledge are very different from doubt and wavering faith. ‘He whose mind is
always wavering does not reach Samadhi’ (1.5.6).
But
the subtle spiritual truths regarding one’s soul, its past and future lives,
cannot be known by ordinary means. They are known through one’s own
supersensuous perception or through the words of an enlightened seer (1.1.11).
Such knowledge makes one ‘ a believer in soul, believer in the world, believer
in Karma and believer in self-effort.” (1.1.1). Thus the preliminary doubt
leads to this fourfold faith which is the basis of the principle of ahimsa.
2.
Ahimsa, the eternal law.
Ahimsa non-violence, is the central theme of the Acaranga. The subtle and
detailed analysis of the tendency to injure other beings, factors responsible
for aggression and violence, and their ill effects on the individual and
society, are discussed in such details as are not to be found elsewhere. The
Acaranga forcefully advocates the principle of Ahimsa and attempts to deepen
the sensitivity of individuals to the suffering of others so that a social
order free from violence can be established. It stresses the fact that the
existence of no creature can be denied simply because it is low in the scale of
evolution.
The Arhats
and the Bhagavatas of the past, present and future, all say thus, speak thus,
declare thus, explain thus: all breathing, existing, living, sentient creature
should not be stain, nor treated with
violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.
This is the
pure, unchangeable, eternal law (dharma) which the wise ones, who have
understood the miseries of the world, have declared….. (1.4.1)
According
to the Acaranga, there are six classes of living beings. There are numberless
lives of Jivas, not only embodied in animals, men, gods, insects and plants,
but also in the four elements, earth, water, fire, and wind. The lives in these
four elements, though unable to express themselves, do feel pain, ‘ as somebody
may cut or strike a blind man [ who is unable to see]’ (1.1.2). No suffering
should be inflicted on any of these creatures. The reason is that ‘ all beings
are fond of life; they like pleasure, hate pain, and shun destruction; they like
life and long to live.’ (1.23.) All living beings are interconnected. None can
hurt anyone without hurting himself.
Whom thou
intendest to kill is none other than thee. Whom thou intendest to tyrannize
over is none other than thee. Whom thou intendest to torment is none other than
thee… The righteous man who has grasped this basic truth does not therefore
kill, nor cause others to kill. He should not intentionally cause the same
punishment for himself. (1.5.5).
Why and how do men inflict injury on other creatures?
In the world
these are all the causes of sin (karma samarambha) which must be comprehended
and renounced. About this the revered one has taught the truth; For the sake of
the splendour, honour and glory of life for the sake of birth and death, and
final liberation, for the removal of pain, all these causes of sin are at work,
which are to be comprehended and renounced (1.1.1).
There
are two more definitions of Dharma found in the Acaranga. Dharma is, it says,
equanimity (1.5.3). In another place it is declared that following the
commandments of the Lord is the highest Dharma (1.6.2). It may not always be
possible to grasp the profound significance of the Lord’s teaching. Hence this
statement.
3. Self –Conquest. While
the Acaranga emphasizes right conduct, it spares no pain to explain the
psychological reason behind it and the need for the conquest of mind before
physical restraint or austerities can be fruitful. The author forcefully
asserts:
I have heard
and experienced this in my innermost heart; freedom from bondage is in your
innermost heart (1.5.2).
Man,
thou art thy own friend, why wishest thou for a friend beyond thy self?
(1.3.3).
True
renunciation consists in giving up attachment and the idea of ownership or
my-ness. ‘He who ceasing to act, relinquishes possessiveness, relinquishes
possessions. That sage has indeed seen the path who has no sense of ownership’
(1.2.5).
Hence
the scripture exhorts an aspirant to purge his mind of all desires and willing.
‘O wise one, reject hope and desire [and willing]; you have yourself kept this
thorn in your heart and [hence you] suffer’ (1.2.4). And it is but natural that
a person running after pleasures would suffer and cause suffering to others.
Pleasures are
difficult to reject, life is difficult to prolong. That man who loves pleasures
is certainly afflicted [by their loss], is sorry in his heart, leaves his usual
ways, is troubled, suffers pain (1.2.5). Those who are impatient for enjoyment
cause great pain to [creatures] (1.1.2). Many are attached to something in the
world- be it little or more, small or great, sentient or non-sentient. Thus
some incur great danger, Desirous of pleasures they heap up Karma (1.5.2).
4. Need for
vigilance. Therefore a spiritual aspirant must be extremely careful in
his conduct. Lord Mahavir specially warns his disciples to guard against
pramada, which means loss of vigilance. Another expression often used is
murcha, living in an illusion of happiness created by favourable circumstances,
oblivious of their transitory nature.
Thus spake
the hero. Be careful against this great delusion. The clever one should have
done with carelessness by considering death in tranquility, and that the nature
of which is decay i.e the body. These pleasures, look! will not satisfy thee
(1.2.4).
Carefully
abstaining from pleasures and ceasing from bad works he is a hero who, guarding
himself, is grounded in knowledge (1.3.1).
Thus
understanding [and renouncing ] acts, a man who recognize the truth, delights
in nothing else (1.2.6).
He who conquers one, conquers may, and he
who conquers many, conquers one…. Faithful to the commandment, such a man is
without danger from anywhere. There are degrees of injurious acts, but there
are no degrees of control. (1.3.4).
Conversely,
the Acaranga is replete with denunciation of careless aspirants and points out
in unmistakable terms the danger to which those lukewarm monastics are exposed
who, after accepting the way of life, indulge carelessly in contrary acts. ‘Some
practice that which is not instructed. Some, though instructed, do not
practice. Let that not be your case.’ (1.5.6).
5.The
Nature of the free soul: The sage following the right path ultimately
becomes liberated from all the cycles of birth and death. Words fail to describe
his state.
All sounds
recoil thence, where speculation has no room, nor does the mind penetrate
there. Alone, he is the knower of that which is without support. [The liberated
soul] is not long nor short nor round nor triangular nor quadrangular nor circular;
he is not black nor blue nor red nor green nor white; neither of good or bad
smell; nor bitter nor pungent nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft;
neither heavy nor light; neither cold nor hot; neither harsh nor smooth; He is
without body, without resurrection, without contact [ of matter ] , he is
neither feminine nor masculine nor neuter;
He perceives,
he knows, but there is no analogy; its essence is without form; there is no
condition of the unconditioned.
There
is no sound, no colour, no smell, no taste, no touch- that is all. Thus I say
(1.5.6).
Conclusion
The
tone of authority and lack of ambiguity in the above quotations from the
Acaranga are specially to be note. At the end of every section we find the commanding expression: ‘ Thus I say’,
Throughout we find the injunction pasa,
‘ look’ , meaning, listen attentively, be an observer of your mental
modifications, ponder deeply on what is being said, and practice it in your
life.
It
is not possible to present here all the spiritual gems stored in the
treasure-house of the sacred books of the Jains. A work called Isibhasiya or Rsibhasita, however, deserves special mention. From the language,
style, contents and the composition of its verses it appears to be a work of 3rd
or 4th century B.C. and later only to the first book of the
Acaranga. In it a number of non-Jain Rishis like Asit-devala, Uddalaka,
Angirasa, Narayana, Vidura, Aruna, Narada and Dvaipayana are respectfully
mentioned. Since sectarian bias generally enters into religion after it is
organized, this religious catholicity of Rsibhasita
is noteworthy and is a definite proof of its antiquity. Its study may help one
to get a glimpse of the purest and the earliest form of Jainism, and its
relation with Upanisadic thought.
The
Acaranga is a holy scripture of the highest order and is the revealer of
transcendental truths and eternal universal laws. Every sutra, every fragment
of its sentences, every quarter of its verses, must be deeply mediated upon.
All are free to dive deep into the ocean of the Jain scriptures, and collect as
many pearls as they can.
Bibliography
1. Max Muller F, The Scared Books of the East, [ Oxford University
2. Ayaro (Rajasthan: Jain Viswa Bharati Ladnu).
3. Hiralal Rasiklal Kapadia, A History of the Canonical Literature of the
Jains (1941).
4. Sogani, Dr. Kamalchanda, Acaranga Cayanika . ( Jaipur: Prakrt
Bharati Academy, 1987).
THUS SPAKE LORD
MAHAVIR
A
day once gone will never return. Therefore, one should be deligent each moment
to do good. We reach the goal of the good life by pious work.
Conquer
ye thy passions who are wise to love modesty, scriptures, penance and right
conduct.
Fool
is he who, blinded by his passions, fixeth not his thoughts on his moral
progress and welfare but sinketh down through temptation of lust.
Greater
will be his victory who conquereth his self than that of one who
conquereth thousands and thousands in a
valiant fight.
