Namo Arihantanam, Namo siddhanam, Namo ayariyanam,
Namo Uvajjhayanam, Namo loye savvasahunam;
Eso pancha namokkaro savva pavapanasano,
Mangalanam cha savvesin, padamam havai manhgalam
“Salutations to
the prophets; salutations to the perfected beings; salutations to the teachers;
salutations to the expoents of scriptures; salutations to all saints. This
fivefold salutation destroys all sins and is pre-eminent as the most auspicious
of all auspicious.”
This renowned, sublime and one of the
holiest namaskara-mantra is chanted every day by millions of followers of Jain
religion. Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world which is
purely indigenously Indian in origin and represents that current of ancient
Indian culture the ‘Sramana Samskriti’, which is distinct and independent of
the Vedic or Brahmanical culture. It is a monastic-oriented religion having a
fully developed system with limbs and accessories, sects and sub-sects, more
than two millennia long history of growth and spread, decline and reform, rich
cultural heritage and a vast canonical literature.
Origin
According to Jain belief the Jain
religion is eternal having been revealed again and again in every one of the
endless succeeding progressive and retrogressive cycles called utsarpini and
avasarpini, by innumerable prophets, the tirthankaras. In the present
avasarpani Risabha was the first and Mahavira the last of a series of
twenty-four tirthankaras. Each of the
twenty-four tirthankaras has a specific sign and colour. Although all are
worshipped, Risabha and the last three, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavir are
the most favorite. The last two are
historical. Parsva was born 250 years
before Mahavir and his sect was prevalent when Mahavir was born. Mahavir was contemporary of Buddha but in
spite of apparent similarities Jainism and Buddhism are distinct from each
other. Though the tirthankaras are accorded worship as to God, Jainism does not
believe in a God who is the creator or ruler of the universe.
Mahavir was born in the latter part of
the sixth century B. C. of Ksatriya parents near Vaishali about twenty miles
north of Patna
At the
beginning of the Christian Era, the Jains divided into two sects : the
Shvetambaras, the white robed and the Digambaras, the sky-robed. It is believed that during the twelve year
long famine in North India, a group of monks headed by Bhadrabahu migrated to
South India. After several years it was found that although the main percepts
were the same, differences regarding regulations of life and conduct had grown
between the two communities, which were difficult to reconcile. Most important of these is that Digambara
monks are allowed no garments, whereas Shvetambaras wear white robes. There
have arisen further sub-sects in each of these major sects.
Canonical Literature
Jain scriputers
are called sruta, sutra or agama. They are claimed to be the
sermons delivered by Mahavir at the enquiries made by Indrabhuti Gautama the
foremost of the apostles. The narrator is
Sudharma Swami, another apostle, who was present during the dialogue and who
later told it to his disciple Jambu Swami.
The canonical literature consists of some sixty texts classified
variously. The principal scriptures, the
angas, are twelve in number of which Acharanga
sutra is the foremost. Besides angas,
Uttaradhyayana, believed to be Mahavir’s last sermon, and Dashavaitalika of a later date are
highly noted. Kalpa Sutra, the life
of Mahavir is also widely read.
Since the works
belonging to the canon are of different age and origin, they differ greatly in
content and character. Most of the
earlier scriptures are in ardhamagadhi,
but Sanskrit works of later date have also been added. A large literature of
gloss and commentaries has grown around more important works. Besides source
books, there are separate works in close agreement with the former, but
containing systematic exposition and having the advantage of clearness and
accuracy. One of the oldest such work is
Umasvati’s Tattwartha Sutra. In
recent years a sort of concordance of the Jain scriptures with the title Samana Sutra, with original Prakrit
texts, Sanskrit rendering and Hindi or English translation has been published.
It may be mentioned that Jains also
possess a secular literature which attempts to illustrate moral and religious
problems and their solutions with the help of tales and allegories. There are even Jain Puranas and Jain
Ramayana.
Philosophy
Jainism asserts
that nothing can be created out of something which does not exist in one form
or the other, and that the universe is uncreated, without beginning and without
end. Its main constituents are two: animate objects and inanimate objects. The
former comprise of infinite number of independent souls in varying degrees of
physical and spiritual development. The latter consist of space, time, dharma-
the principle of motion, adharma, the principle of rest, and matter in
different forms. Spirit and matter both are real, pluralistic, eternal and not liable
to lose or interchange their nature.
Four groups of
souls dwell in the cosmos: gods living in heaven, human beings, and tiryaks or lower animals living on the
earth, and narakiya the inhabitant of
hells or nether worlds. There is another
classification which groups souls according to the number of sense organs they
possess. The highest possess all the five
sense organs (panchendriya) while the
lowest have only one sense of touch (ekendriya). This classification is of great practical
importance because the highest duty of a Jain is ahimsa, not to cause injury to
any living creature.
There is yet
another classification according to the degree of advancement towards the final
goal of liberation. He who has attained
freedom from good and evil and has reached perfection by realizing his divine
nature ranks the highest and is called siddha
paramesthin. This state, can in fact, be described only as an absolutely
unconditional passionless peace, free from action and desire. Next in scale is arhat who although illuminated, has not
attained final liberation from physical body. Having a desire to serve his
fellow beings, such a soul becomes the revealer of eternal truths of religion.
The next three gradations viz. Acharya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu, are of human teachers and
spiritual aspirants. These five are collectively called “ Panch-parameshtin” to whom the “Namaskar
Mantra” is addressed.
The
jiva, by its very nature, is pure
consciousness and the goal is to manifest its divinity by removing the karmic impurities
which conceal it. To do this one must have the clear concept of seven tattvas or principles; (1) jiva, spirit;
(2) ajiva, matter; (3) ashrava, the manner in which karmic
impurities flow into the soul; (4) bandha,
the bondage of karma; (5) samvara,
checking fresh karmas to accumulate; (6)
nirjara, the shedding away of accumulated karma, (7) moksha, state of liberation. If we add punya, merit and papa,
demerit to the above list, we obtain the nine categories or padarthas of Jain metaphysics.
There
are five conditions of bondage: perversity of attitude or ignorance, mithyatva; non-abstinence from sense
pleasures and violence, avirati;
spiritual inertia or carelessness, pramada;
passions or evil tendencies, kasaya;
and the three fold activities of body, speech and mind, yoga. Kashayas are four
in number: anger, egoism, deceit and greed. Each of these has four degrees:
intense or deep rooted; voluntary and uncontrollable; voluntary and
controllable; and mild, in seed form. All these conditions have corresponding
karmas responsible for them. The spiritual advancement is determined by the
extent of the removal of these karmic impurities. This ladder of spiritual
ascent has fourteen steps called gunasthanas.
The Path to Liberation:
The
necessary conditions for reaching the final goal of Moksha are : (1) Right
attitude or faith, samyak darshana;
(2) Right knowledge, samyak jnana;
and (3) Right conduct, samyak charitra,
collectively called triratna.
The
righteous life of a Jain begins with samyak
darshana or samyakatva, when the
individual gives up his erroneous beliefs and gains right attitude, samyakdristi towards one’s own nature,
world, and the aim of life. This amounts to the first spiritual awakening and
is given great importance in Jainism. The psychological advantages, purity and
insight obtained in this stage are elaborately described in Jain literature. In
reality, however, it amounts to having faith in, and acceptance of, Jain prophets,
scriptures and teachers as the only true ones. This dispels the first condition
of bondage, mithyatva.
To
acquire right knowledge and right conduct and to overcome other conditions of
bondage, rules of conduct must be followed. The foremost amount these are the
five vows or vratas: (1) not to kill, ahimsa;
(2) not to lie, satya; (3) not to
steal, asteya; (4) abstain from sex, brahmacharya; (5) not to keep property, aparigraha. These are to be strictly
followed by a monk in thought, word and deed (mahavrata). Lay devotees however observe these so far as their
conditions permit (anuvrata). Jains,
both lay and monastic do not eat after sunset. So great a stress is land to
this rule that it is given the rank of the sixth vow.
The Path of the Layman
Although Jainism
is a monastic oriented religion, the role of lay devotees is not
underestimated. While the vows of layman are only weaker versions of the
mahavratas, meant only to curb evil behaviour and cannot lead to final
liberation, in practice, however, this point is not stressed. The Jain acharyas
have realized that no institution can survive without the strong involvement of
the laity. Hence they have shown high regard to this path by producing numerous
texts elaborating the lay conduct. Despite this trend, the ascetic orientation if
Jainism is not lost and even lay discipline is far more stricter than in any
other religious community.
The
vows prescribed for the layman include the five anuvratas, refraining from meat, alcohol, honey and certain items
of food, and certain vows called gunavratas.
These take the form of restricting ones area of activity, objects of enjoyment,
food, clothing etc. and giving up such unwholesome activities like gambling,
hunting etc. To this are added daily meditation, fasting on certain days each
month and charity specially towards monks. The Sravakachara texts dealing with the conduct of a sravaka or lay devotee also set up an
eleven stepped ladder, the sravaka
pratima for the guidance of the devotees. Beginning with the stage of right
views, the devotee goes on adding in succeeding higher stages, the vows, daily
meditations, fasting, continence, and relinquishes worldly activities till he
reaches the eleventh and the final rung of the ladder called sramanabhuta
pratima, or the stage of similarity to a monk. He can now take the monastic
vows if he so desires.
Rituals and Ceremonies
The
rules enumerated above are severe enough and even the clerics of many religions
do not live so strictly. The actuality, however, is that the path so laid down
constitutes an ideal followed only by a rare few. To comprehend therefore the
religious life of Jain laity in real terms, we must observe the prevalent
rituals, customs, and periodic ceremonies in which the Jain faith is centred
and through which it is reflected. The layman performs them unbound by vows.
These also provide a sense of group identity.
The
canonical texts prescribe six obligatory duties for monks which are highly
recommended for lay devotees. They are (1) Samayika-
practice of equanimity through meditation, (2) Caturvishati stava-
praise of the tirthankaras, (3) Vandana- veneration of the elders,
teachers and monks. (4) Pratikramana-
expiation of sins, (5) Kayotsarga-
standing or sitting in one posture for a length of time (6) Pratyakyana – renunciation of certain foods and activities etc.
Digambaras moving more towards the secular aspect of the ritual developed the
following: (1) Devapuja- worship of tirthankaras, (2) Guru-upasti- veneration of the teacher, (3) Svadhyaya- study of scriptures, (4) Samyama- restraint (5) Tapas-
austerities, (6) Dana- charity. Some
of these which have become incorporated into the life of Jain followers most may be described in greater details.
Although
ancient Jain texts do not mention temples or images, the construction of
temples, installation of images and their ritualistic worship is very popular
except in the sthanakvasi sect. The images
worshipped are those of tirthankaras in standing or sitting meditative poses.
Jains have not developed a priest class and the lay devotees carry out the
ritual themselves with the help of an employed Brahmin priest. In temples there
are also images of snake god Dharmendra and his consort Padmavati who are
supposed to have helped Parshvanath. These are called sasana devatas, inferior deities and are supposed to fulfill
mundane desires.
The
actual worship consists of making symbolic figure of a crescent with a dot
above and three dots below, and a figure of swastika with rice grains on a
wooden plank. These represent respectively the state of the siddha, the
triratna and the four types of destinies of jives. This is followed by
abhisheka- the ritual bath of the image. Next, eight substances, viz. water,
sandal paste, uncooked rice, flowers, sweets, incense, fruits and a lamp are
offered. Next step is singing of praises or staves. The worship ends with
waving of lamps; arati. The
Digambaras of South India have developed a relatively more elaborate form of
ritual.
The
building ot temples and installation of images are considered acts of great
merit. Similarly Jains attach great value to pilgrimage to various shrines
scattered all over India
As
stated above, a close relationship has always existed between the ascetic and
the householders in Jain tradition. Monks and nuns are revered to the point of
adoration. The procedure of approaching and bowing to the monks is called vandana and includes an exchange of
ritual formula in prakrit. The lay
devotees take this opportunity to
confess (pratikramana) their
transgressions and to accept further restrictions. Such confessions may be done
daily, fortnightly or yearly. The annual rite of collective confession observed by all sects of Jains takes place
during rainy season and is called samvatsari. For a period of eight or ten
days known as paryusana-parva the devotees
undertake various types of restrictions like eating one meal a day or fasting
etc. On the last day, they assemble for collective prayers. The admission of
sins, and pleas for forgiveness (ksama)
are directed not only to monks and teachers, devotees, relations, and friends,
but towards all creatures. The devotee also extends his forgiveness to all
beings. The spirit is well expressed in the following verse:
“
I pardon all living creatures; may all of
them pardon me. May I have friendly relationship with all beings, and
unfriendly with none.”
The
most important and highly regarded ritual, however, is the solitary meditation
called samayika. The term has various
connotations: restraint, renunciation, attainment of equanimity and self
awareness. In practice it amounts to renunciation of worldly thought and
activity for a fixed period. Generally practiced daily at sunset, it consists
of recitation of sacred texts, meditation, observance of silence and kayotsarga i.e not moving the limbs. The
texts recited are preliminary resolve formula, the Namaskar Mantra, praise of
twenty-four tirthankaras and texts expressive of feeling of goodwill towards
all.
Great
stress is laid not only on the way one lives but also on how one dies. A devout
Jain wants to keep his vows till the last day of his life untarnished by old
age and infirmity. A rather extra-ordinary aspiration of every Jain is to
attain ‘samadhtimaran’ or death while
in mediation. This is carried out by gradual fasting, sallekhana, done in strict accord with the scriptural
prescription. It can be done during great famine or an unavoidable calamity
that may make keeping of vows impossible. Under normal conditions it is
undertaken if there is terminal or incurable illness or old age. Although sallekhana is most often undertaken by
monks, it has been common enough among lay devotees.
All
Jains, lay and monastics, engage in one or more of the twelve anupreksha or bhavanas. These are mental reflections on the transitory nature of
the world; on the relentless cycles of; birth and death and attended misery; on
the alone-ness and utter helplessness of human situation; on the impure nature
of the physical body; on the way karmas accumulate, can be prevented and
removed; on the rarity of human birth, and on true insight etc. Their aim is to
strengthen and intensify the spirit of dispassion and renunciation.
The Conduct of a Monk
The
difference between a lay devotee and monk lies not only in the range of
applicability of the great vows but also in the degree of effort required to
avoid transgressions and the internal attainment of a state of equanimity which
is possible only by taking formal monastic vows.
The formal
assumption of the mahavratas takes
place in a ceremony called diksha
(initiation) or pravrajya (renunciation).
It is an occasion of great importance for the whole community which celebrates
it with pomp, and religious acts like Jina-worship, charities etc. are
undertaken by the lay members and in honour of the new monk. During the
ceremony proper scriptural texts are recited and after total renunciation by
the candidate, he is given ( in Swetambara sect ) three large pieces of cloth,
a broom called rajoharana made of
woolen tufts ( or peacock feathers in Digambaras) for gently removing insects,
a begging bowl, a blanket, a staff, a cloth to cover the mouth in some sects,
and few books. A totally unique feature of Diksha in Jainism is kesa-loca i.e removing hair from one’s
own head by pulling them out. It is said to have been performed by Mahavira and
signifies the monk’s determination to successfully meet with the severe demands
of the ascetic life.
Of
the mahavratas ahimsa or non-violence, of course, is the most important.
Jainism recognizes not only living beings having one to five senses, but also
elemental bodies. Sthavaras in air,
water, earth and fire. Acharanga
sutra states that these bodies suffer as other living beings but can not
express their suffering like a mute person. And a monk is expected to observe
ahimsa towards even these categories of life. Hence apart from refraining from
causing overt injury by thought, word and deed to all living beings, a Jain monk also refrains from such acts as
digging, bathing, swimming, wading through rain or water, lighting or
extinguishing fire, fanning oneself, walking on greenery or touching a living
plant.
According
to Uttaradhyayana sutra a monk is
supposed to sleep for only three hours at night. His duties consist of
meditation, study of scriptures, repentance for sins, begging, careful
inspection of clothes and other articles to avoid insects being harmed.
Traditionally Jain monks lead a wandering life except during four months of
rainy season. Separate buildings called upashrayas
are constructed by devotees where monks can stay for longer or shorter periods.
Subsidiary
to the mahavrats, there are certain
restrictions (guptis) and rules of
conduct (samitis) which are aimed at
avoiding pitfalls in observance of mahavratas.
Guptis refer to progressive curbing of the activities of body, speech and
mind. These take the form of observance of long hours of silence, remaining
motionless for hours at a stretch, and the practice of the concentration of
mind. Samitis consist in carefulness while walking, speaking, accepting alms,
handling objects and attending the calls of nature.
The life of a
monk is one of troubles and hardships. He must depend on others for his basic
needs. Not being a part of ordinary society he may not be acceptable to many.
He must therefore have a clear knowledge of all these difficulties which he has
voluntarily accepted as part of his life, and must bear them with equanimity
and patience. These hardships are called parishaha
and a list of twenty-two items like heat and cold, hunger and thirst, insect
bites, lack of comfortable lodging place, illness, refusal of alms, insults and
temptations is given in the scriptures.
Tapas or
austerities form a very important part of the life of not only the monastic but
also the lay Jain devotes. So great a stress is laid on tapas that it is included with the triratana as the fourth pillar of Jainism. While vratas, guptis and
samitis effectively prevent further influx of karmic impurities (samvara), tapas is the most effective positive means for the rapid
elimination of already accumulated karmas (nirjara). In all there are twelve
austerities, six being external and six internal. External austerities mainly
consist of fasting and rules regarding food, control of palate, begging,
mortification of flesh and living in unfrequented places. Of greater importance,
however, are the internal austerities. They are repentance, humility, service,
study, meditation and relinquishing the body to fate without moving the limbs.
The Jain Society
It
is remarkable that of the various non-Vedic traditions, Jainism alone has been
able to survive and prosper in India
One
of the saving factors in Jainism had been the active role played by its lay
community. In spite of difference in rules, regulations and life-style, the
monastic and lay devotees are socially closely interlinked and effectively
influence each other. In some sects the lay devotees assemble at the place
where the acharya with his subordinate monks stay for chaturmasa, not only for spiritual instructions but also to discuss
the questions facing the community at large. The learned among the householders,
well versed in the scriptures, are even free to point out the imperfections in
the conduct of the monks. This watchfulness of the laity has, to a large extent,
prevented the decline of the moral conduct of the monastics.
The
total number of Jains of all sects in India South India while the headquarters of Swetambara sect is Gujarat . Splendid temples, some of which rank among the
architectural wonders of India
Conclusion
Jains
as a class are peace-loving, committed to non-violence and strong advocates of
vegetarianism. Their metaphysical theory of reality as multi-faced called anekantvada and the consequent logical
doctrine of syadvad which states that
every judgment is limited and relative, has made them tolerant and respectful
towards the opinion of others. And these traits have not remained without
influencing Indian scene at large. In this connection it may be mentioned that
Mahatma Gandhi, the greatest modern champion of non-violence, was deeply
influenced by Jainism through the renowned Jain lay-saint Srimad Rajchandra.
Each
religion of the world has something unique to contribute to the grand orchestra
of world Religions. And non-violence is the special contribution of Jainism.
Jaina pratika; symbol of the Jaina faith, officially adopted during
the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira’s nirvana (1975). The palm of
the hand bears the work ahimsa; the svastika
topped by three dots and the crescent represent the four destinies, the
threefold path, and the abode of the liberated souls, respectively; the slogan
below the figure of lokakasa calls
for the mutual assistance of all beings. parasparopagraho
jivanam
