On
the last Akshaya Tritiya, a day auspicious to Hindus as well as Jains, I
happened to be at Limbdi, a small town in Gujarat ,
where there is a large community of Jains. I was asked to attend the ‘fast
breaking ceremony of the year-long-fast’ of one of the relatives of Jain
devotee of the local Ramakrishna Ashrama. The person concerned was a young
lady, about 25, who had undertaken varshitapa,
which involves fasting on alternate days and on intervening auspicious days for
one year starting from and ending on Akashaya Tritiya. The occasion of the
successful completion of the penance was being celebrated with great joy and
festivity. The lady was attired in her best dress and was decked from head to
foot with gold ornaments. As a mark of recognition and appreciation, every
visitor offered a spoonful of sugarcane juice in a small cup for her to drink.
Even this kind of participation is considered highly meritorious. Embroidered
pictures depicting this scene can often be seen in Jain temples.
Although
all the major religions of the world lay stress on austerity (tapas) as a means
of emancipation, the above description shows what high honour is given in
Jainism to a person undertaking tapas. As a matter of fact, so great a stress
is laid on tapas in Jainism that it is included as the fourth essential means
of salvation along with the triratna of Jainism, viz., right faith, right
knowledge, and right conduct. According to Jain philosophy, the individual soul
is inherently pure, conscious, blissful, omniscient, and omnipotent, but owing
to past karmas its inherent perfection is concealed. The task before the
aspirant is to prevent the accumulation of new karmas (samvara) and to remove the already accumulated ones (nirjara). To the extent the karmic covering
is made thinner, the light of the soul shines forth. This nirjara is achieved
mainly by tapas.1 ‘ As a large tank, when its
supply of water has been stopped, gradually dries up by the consumption of
water and by evaporation, so also the karmas of a monk which he has acquired in
crores of births are annihilated by austerities, if there is no influx of bad
karmas.’2 ‘ He who practices penance is able to
keep his vows, acquire knowledge of scriptures, and become capable of holding
the axle of the chariot of meditation.’3
Definition of Tapas in Jainism
Tapas
is variously defined by Jain acharyas. According to Acharya Malayagiri, that
which burns eight types of karma is tapas.4
Karma is often compared to dry wood or straw in Jainism, and hence this derivative
meaning is quite apt. Jinadasagani Mahatma also gives a similar derivative
meaning but adds sin (papa) with karma.6
However, Acharya Abhayadevsuri extends the meaning to include emaciation and
drying up of the body as well.7 Another
acharya has given an entirely different definition: ‘ Control of one’s desires
is tapas.’8 According to Acharya Sonabhadra,
restraint of senses and the mind is tapas.9
Summarizing these various views, Pandit Sukhalji says: ‘ With a view to
developing spiritual power adequate for reducing passions, whatever means are
adopted for placing under burning hardship one’s body, senses and mind, are
called tapas or penance.’10
As
has been pointed out, the main purpose of tapas is the expiation of karmas.
However, austerities concentrate the mental energies and strengthen the
will-power as well, which may be utilized for fulfilment of desires here and
hereafter. Tapas may also impart occult powers to the aspirant. Such sakama austerities for ulterior motives,
or for name and fame, have been denounced in the ancient Jain scriptures in no
uncertain terms.11
Tapas
in Jainism has been divided into two types: (1) External (bahiranga) and (2)
internal (antaranga). Each of these has six sub-divisions. Those austerities
which can be seen by others, which are mainly physical and concerned with
external observances, are included under external tapas. Those which cannot be
seen by others, which are predominantly mental and independent of external
aids, are called internal tapas.
External Tapas
(1)
Fasting (anashana). Religious people
often undertake prolonged and extremely rigourous facts without deriving much
spiritual benefit. Such fasting is often denounced by the Gita as tamasic
austerity. However, the fact is that fasting is advocated in almost all
religions of the world as an important method of mortification. All religions
have produced saints who have practised severe austerities involving fasting.
According to Hindu mythology, goddess Parvati did severe tapas in which she
gave up eating even the leaves fallen from trees. Lakshmana is believed to have
fasted for fourteen years while serving Rama during the years of banishment.
These two mythological examples exemplify the Hindu view on fasting. Jesus
Christ fasted for forty days; so did Saint Francis of Assisi
Other
than the expiation of Karmas, the other objectives for fasting in Jainsim are:
as a treatment for diseases, for conquest of hunger, and to overcome attachment
to food. However, the period of fasting must be utilized for scriptural study.
The tapas of fasting without scriptural study is not better than voluntary
starving. Fasting becomes tapas only when the person observing it does not
entertain any inauspicious thought, when it does not result in physical
weakness, and when the functions of mind, speech and body remain unimpaired.12 Jain scriptures enjoin that a person
should undertake fasting after taking into consideration his physical strength,
stamina, faith, state of health, place and time. Subjugation of senses is also
described as fasting and, therefore, those who have conquered their senses are
said to be fasting although they may be taking food. The purity attained by one
well-versed in scriptures, though regularly taking food, would be many times
more than the purity attained by a person ignorant of scriptures, even
though he may fast for two, three, four
or five days.13 During the period of
fasting, speaking harsh words, anger, abusing others or hurting anyone in any
way, and carelessness must be avoided; continence must be observed and the time
must be spent in scriptural study and meditation on the nature of the self.14
Fasting
can be done unto death or for a limited period of time. Fasting for one, two,
four or even eight days as tapas is quite popular among Jain monks and even lay
devotees, especially women. Fasting on alternate days and auspicious days for
full one year, called varshitapa, is
regarded very highly and many undertake it. Apart from this, there are various
other more rigorous fasts which some ascetics undertake.
(2) Partial
Fasting (avamodarya). This means taking less food than required to appease hunger. It helps
in restraining of senses, control of sleep, meditation, and performance of
obligatory duties enjoined by the scriptures.15
(3)
Bhikshcharya or Vrittiparisamkhyana. This tapas too is concerned with the control of
food and is for monks. The ascetic decides beforehand the manner in which he is
going to accept alms, the number of houses to be visited, the type of food, the
particulars of the person giving alms, etc. He accepts food only when all the
conditions are fulfilled, otherwise he goes without food. Sometimes the
conditions are too difficult to be fulfilled and the monk goes without food for
many days.
(4) Rasaparityaga.
This, again, pertains to food and consists in giving up palatable food in
general and milk, curd, ghee, oil, sugar, and salt in particular. The monk does
not live to eat but eats to live. The purpose of this tapas is to subdue the
senses, to overcome sleep, and to achieve an unobstructed study of scriptures.
(5) Residence
in Lonely Places (vivikta-sayyasana). A monk should choose for his
residence a secluded place unfrequented by women, worldly-minded people, and
animals. This helps in the observance of the vow of chastity and the practice
of meditation and introspection.
(6)
Mortification of the Body (kayaklesha). This consists in infliction of some
pain to the body by adopting certain postures like virasana, or by exposing it
to extremes of heat and cold. The purpose of this austerity is to develop
forbearance and to counteract inordinate attachment to pleasure.
Jain
scriptures clearly point out that the practice of these ‘external austerities’
must not produce mental unrest or hinder in any way the practice of other moral
and spiritual disciplines. On the contrary, they must reduce body-consciousness
and enhance spiritual insight.16 They must lead to ‘internal austerities.’17 The knowledge acquired in a convenient
situation vanishes when one is exposed to inconvenience. So an aspirant
must not hesitate to expose himself to
inconveniences according to his capacity.18
Internal Tapas
(1)
Atonement (prayaschitta). Acts done for the atonement of sins are called prayascitta and are given great
importance in all religions because they absolve the person of the sense of
guilt, purity him, and help him to climb again the path of virtue. Prayaschitta consists in voluntarily
confessing the transgression and gladly accepting the punishment for it so that
the person does not form a habit of repeatedly committing the same mistake. It
is considered tapas because it helps in the expiation of evil karmas.
The
subject of prayaschitta and its
various aspects is dealt with in great detail in Jain scriptures. In fact,
there are as many prayaschittas as
there are shades of faults or transgressions. Hence it is almost impossible to
draw up an exhaustive list of all of them.
While
prescribing prayaschitta, the general
character and conduct of the transgressor, his capacity to bear the punishment,
time, place, whether the sin has been committed once or repeatedly, wilfully or
by mistake, etc. must be taken into consideration. Some minor faults are atoned
just by voluntary confession, while others need punishment. Ten prayaschitas in the order of severity
have been described in Jain scriptures. These are: confession; repentance;
discrimination; renunciation; penance; partial reduction of monastic seniority;
absolute exclusion from the monkhood for a specific period and reordination
thereafter; expulsion from the monastic order and reiteration of faith.19
An
unintentional or intentionally committed evil act must be confessed with an
unperturbed mind, just as a child guilelessly tells his mother about all the
goods and bad acts done by him. He who expresses frankly and honestly becomes
pure and free from mental agony.21 It is
said that one must not conceal one’s defects from a benevolent king, a
physician, and a teacher.
(2) Humility
(vinaya).
Humility is considered the foundation of religious life and the basic virtue in
Jainism. It is the gateway to liberation; through humility one can acquire
self-control, penance and knowledge. How can there be religion or penance in
one who is not humble? By humility one honours the acharya and the sangha.23 If one elder is insulted, it amounts to
insulting all. If one is venerated all are venerated.24
To
rise from one’s seat on the arrival of an elder, to welcome him with folded
hands, to offer him a seat, to serve him with devotion- these constitute
humility. There are, according to Jain scriptures, five kinds of humility which
encampass all the important aspects of monastic conduct such as the humble
acceptance of the Jain tenets (darshana-vinaya),
diligent acquisition of knowledge (jnana-vinaya),
careful conduct (charitra-vinaya),
practice of taps (tapa-vinaya), and
humble behaviour (aupacharika-vinaya).
It is therefore said that one must not abandon humility at any cost. Even a
person of less knowledge of scriptures can annihilate karma if he is humble.26
(3) Service
(vaiyavritya). Service rendered to the acharya, the upadhyaya, an ascetic,
an old monk, and other religious people is considered an important ‘ internal
austerity’ in Jainism. It consists in providing the served person with bed,
residence, seat, arranging for his food, medicine, reading out scriptural texts
on him, etc. 27 It also includes
offering protection to monks and taking care of one who is fatigued on the way;
or threatened by thief, wild animals or king; or obstructed by a river; or
afflicted by disease or famine.28
(4) Scriptural
Study (svadhyaya). Scriptural study forms a very important part of the life
of a monk. It is essential for intellectual excellence. It helps in the
development of detachment, offers a healthy engagement for the mind, augments
the quality of tapas, and leads to purification from the trangressions of the
vows.29
Scriptural
study has five parts: (i) reading or listening, (ii) asking questions to dispel
doubts, (iii) repetition and revision of what has been read, (iv) contemplating
deeply on what has been read, and (v) giving religious discourses opening with
auspicious chants.30 It must
be done with devotion, without desire for praise or honour, and with the sole
purpose of expiation of karmas.31
Scriptural study helps in the control of senses, body, mind and speech, and
increases concentration of mind.32
Meditation is an important means of destruction of karmas. Meditation, again,
is perfected by knowledge, which is obtained by studies. Hence one must always
engage in acquiring knowledge through studies. This is why scriptural study is
considered the foremost among the twelve austerities.33
(5) Bodily
Steadiness (kayotsarga). A monk who makes no movement while lying, sitting,
or standing and checks all activities of his body is said to observe the tapas
of Bodily Steadiness.34 The
benefits of the practice of Bodily Steadiness are: removal of mental and
physical lethargy, attainment of equanimity for pleasure and pain, obtaining
enough opportunity for deep reflection, and enhancement of the power of
concentration for meditation. Since Bodily Steadiness is beneficial in
acquiring mental concentration, alertness, and forbearance, it is classed as
one of the ‘Internal Tapas’ even though it is concerned with the physical body.
According
to another version, renunciation (vyutsarga)
is the fifth tapas. This is of two types: external renunciation (dravyavyutsarga) and internal
renunciation (bhavavyutsarga).
External renunciation includes renouncing attachment to the body, giving up
dependence upon the monastic order (gana-vyutsarga)
and living away from the community in solitude for the sake of spiritual
practices, reducing or renouncing the articles of daily use like clothes,
begging bowl, etc. Internal renunciation consists in giving up anger, egoism,
attachment, and greed, the feeling of aversion or attraction, and unnecessary
activities of body, mind and speech.35
(6) Meditation
(dhyana). Meditation occupies the
most important place in the scheme of Jain ethics. In fact, all ethical
disciplines are aimed at perfecting meditation. ‘ If a person is free from
attachment, hatred, delusion, and activities of mind, speech and body, he
becomes filled with the fire of meditation, that burns all auspicious and
inauspicious karmas.’36
In
Jainism, all concentrated thinking is called meditation. However, only two
types of ‘auspicious thinkings’ called dharma
and sukla-dhyana fall under the
category of sixth internal tapas. For meditation, the meditator should sit in
the palyanka posture, control all
activities of mind, speech and body, fix the gaze of his eyes on the tip
of his nose, and inhale and exhale his
breath slowly. Having condemned one’s evil conduct, giving up carelessness,
having steadied one’s mind, one ought to undertake meditation until the thing
meditated upon appears as if standing in front of oneself.37
A
thorough understanding of the nature of the mundane existence, lack of
attachment and aversion, fearlessness, desirelessness, and having an attitude
of indifference towards the world are the qualifications for attaining success
in mediation. The types and subtypes of the dharma and sukla-dhyana, the
detailed techniques, qualifications, etc. are described in great detail in Jain
scriptures. Here it has been mentioned only as one of the types of tapas.38
Conclusion
This,
then, is a short account of tapas in Jainism. Practices like service, humility,
scriptural study, renunciation, and meditation are accepted in all the
religions of the world even though they may or may not be classed as
austerities. Controversy arises only with regard to methods of physical
mortification. According to Vyasa’s commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,
tapas essentially means physical mortification. In Christianity, external
mortification consists in control of the five senses of knowledge. On the other
hand, Buddhism and the Gita do not seen to advocate physical austerities.
Nevertheless, the place of judicious external mortification in the scheme of
spiritual practice cannot be denied, and in this respect, the classification
and arrangement of austerities in Jainism deserve appreciation.
References
1 Tattvartha Sutra-
Umasvati, with commentary by Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghvi, Eng. Trans. By K.K. Dixit
(Ahmedabad: LD Institute of Indology, 1974), 9,3.
2 ‘Uttaradhyayana Sutra,’ Sacred Books of the East
Series: Jaina Texts. Motilal Banarsidass, New
Delhi
3 Dravya Sangraha by Nemichandra, with Brahmadeva’s
commentary. The Sacred Publishing House, Arrah ,
India
4 Avashyaka, 2,1; quoted by Swani Sri Mishrilalji
Maharaj, in Jain Dharma Me Tapa (Hindi). Sri Marudharakesari Sahitya Prakashana
Samiti, Jodhpur
5. ‘Uttaradhyayana
Sutra, ‘ op. cit., 22.44.
6 Nisitha Curni, Jinadasagani Mahattara, Agra,
1957, 46.
7 Sthananga Vritti, 5,
quoted by Muni Sri Mishrilal, op.cit.,p.33.
8 Muni Sri Mishrilal, op.
cit., p.34
9 1,22 quoted by Muni Sri
Mishrila, op.cit., p.35.
10 Tattvardha Sutra, op.
cit., 9.19.
11 Dashavaikalika Sutra, 10.4. English translation by
Dr. Watner Schubring; published by Seth Anandaji Kalyanji Pedhi, 1932
12 Samana Suttam, Sarva
Sevasangh, Varanasi
13 Ibid., 445-47.
14 Muni Sri Mishrilal, op.
cit., p.179-80.
15 Uttaradhyayana, op.
cit., p.179-80.
16 Mulachara of Vattakeracharya; commentary by
Vasanandin, Bombay
17 Samantabhadra,
Svayambhustotra, 83; quoted by Dayananda Bhargava, op. cit., p. 184
18 Samana Suttam, op.
cit., 453
19 Ibid., 460.
20. Ibid., 461
21 Ibid., 463, 464.
22
Culika (prayaschitta), printed by C.R. Jain, Allahabad
23 Samana Suttam, op.
cit., 469, 470.
24 Ibid., 468
25 Ibid., 467
26 Ibid., 472.
27 Ibid., 473.
28 Ibid., 474. The details can be found in my article ‘
The Ideal of Service in Jainism,’ The Vedanta Kesari, December 1992.
29 Pujyapada on Tattvartha Sutras, Solapur, S.S. 1839,
924; quoted by Dayananda Bhargava, op. cit., p.192
30 Samana Suttam, op.
cit., p.475.
31 Ibid., 476
32 Ibid., 478
33 Ibid., 479.
34 Ibid., 480
35 Sadhvir Sri Jayadarshitashriji, Philosophy of Sadhana
in Jainism, Buldhana, 1985, p.170.
36 Samana Suttam, 487.
37 op. cit., 489-90.
38 The details can be found in my article ‘ The
Meditation Techniques in Jainism , ’ Prabuddha Bharata, February, 1985.
