JAINISM
is pre-eminently a monastically oriented religion. According to Jain philosophy
the goal of human life is moksa,
liberation from transmigratory cycle of births and deaths. Perverted views,
non-restraint, carelessness, passions, and activity are the five causes of
bondage[i]
and these can be totally eliminated by the rigorous practice of a discipline
possible only to monk. So great is the
emphasis laid for on monasticism that to renounce the world and to become a
monk is one of the prime aspirations of every Jain lay devotee[ii].
Kumar goes to the extent of saying that Jainism is simply a monastic
organization, an Order of begging friars somewhat similar to Dominicans or
Franciscans in medieval Europe , and that the
Jain religion is purely an ethical system arising out of its monasticism[iii].
Jain
monastic life is open to all, irrespective of caste, status and sex. However,
to maintain a high moral standard and for practical reasons, certain
qualifications and restrictions were imposed at a later date. Twenty categories
of persons, such as the following, are debarred from monastic life: a child
under eight years, an old person, a eunuch, a sick person, one devoid of limbs,
a timid person, a mad or an imbecile person. Robbers, traitors, enemies of the
state, slaves, servants, and persons in debt are debarred for purely social
reasons.[viii]
The majority of people
renounce due to disgust for the word and a desire for liberation (samsarabhaya-udvigna). Sometimes a woman
may renounce when her husband or her son becomes a monk.[ix]
Some embrace the monastic life after being impressed by the teachings of
Mahavira. Besides these, the Jain scriptures cite many worthy and unworthy
causes such as anger, poverty, enlightenment in dream, illness, humiliation,
which may lead one to become a monk.[x]
Irrespective
of the motive, the ceremony of initiation (diksa) is carried out with full
gravity and seriousness. The ceremony is accompanied by great pomp proportional
to the social status of the candidate. Particulars of the ceremony vary from sect
to sect. In Digambaras, the aspirant stands before the Acarya bereft of all
possessions including the loincloth. He is given a water-pot (kamandalu) and a
broom (rajoharana) made of peacock-feathers to gently remove insects.[xi]
Among the Svetambars, the aspirant is given three pieces of cloth, a rajoharana
or a broom made of woollen tufts, a begging bowl, a blanket , a staff, and some
volumes of scriptures. In the Sthanakavasi sect, a strip of cloth to cover the
mouth is also given. All these paraphernalia make it easy to identify the
monk’s sect. It also helps the monk to keep the Mahavratas [described below].
Origin
There
are various theories regarding the origin of Jain monasticism. According to
orthodox belief, Jainism is eternal. The various similarities between the three
monastic systems which have arisen in India
Historical background
The
founders of Jainism and its four branches- viz monks, nuns, men lay-devotees
and women lay-devotees- are the twenty four Tirthakaras, the first and the last
of these being Rsabha and Mahavira respectively. All these prophets were monks
and, except Malli, who was a woman, all were men. Only the last two, viz Parsva
and Mahavira, are historical. Parsva was born 250 years before Mahavira, and
his order was prevalent when the latter was born. Parsva preached a fourfold
religion consisting of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, and non-possessiveness,
and allowed monks to wear clothes.
Jainism
as practised today is largely based upon the teachings of Mahavira who died in
527 BC at the age of 72. He was succeeded as the head of the Order by Gautama
and Sudharma successively. Eight schisms occurred in Jainism, two during the
lifetime of Mahavira himself.[vii]
The final division into the Digambara and Svetambara sects occurred most
probably at the end of the first century AD. During the twelve-year long famine
in North and West India, a portion of the community migrated to South India.
Years later when the leaders met it was found that irreconcilable differences (specially
regarding nudity) in their modes of living and conduct had developed between
them.
Eligibility for monastic life
Causes for renunciation
The ceremony
A
unique feature of the ceremony is kesa-loca, i.e plucking out hair from one’s
own head and beard. It is said to have been performed by Mahavira and
symbolizes the monk’s determination to meet the severe demands of ascetic life.
This is repeated every four or six months throughout the monk’s life.
Mahavrats
The
acceptance of the Mahavratas, ‘ Five Great Vows’ is common to all the sects of
Jainism and forms the most important part of the ordination ceremony. The five
vows are:
(1) Ahimsa.
Abstaining from injury to all living beings, small or large, moving or
immovable. For the perfect practice of this vow the monk must be careful in his
movements, thoughts, words, and the upkeep of his belongings. Jainsim
recognizes as living being not only those having one to five sense-organs but
also the elemental bodies (sthavara) in air, water, fire and earth. A monk is
expected to observe ahimsa towards even these categories of living beings. So
he refrains from such acts as digging, bathing, swimming, wading through water,
lighting or extinguishing fire, fanning himself, walking on greenery, or
touching a living plant.
(2) Satya.
Truthfulness. This vow is fulfilled by speaking only after careful deliberation
and by giving up anger, greed, fear, and mirth which may lead one to indulge in
falsehood.
(3) Asteya.
Non-stealing (literally, not taking what is not given). This is carried out by
begging, by asking permission of the superior before consuming food, and by
asking permission for staying at a place for oneself and for one’s
fellow-monks.
(4) Brahmacarya.
Abstaining from sexual intercourse. This is carried out by refraining from
talking about, looking at, or thinking of members of the opposite sex; by not
recalling to mind former sexual pleasures; by avoiding too much food, dainty
dishes, and beds used by householders or members of the opposite sex.
(5) Aparigraha.
Renunciation of all possession and attachments. This vow is strengthened when
the monk refrains from enjoying sense-pleasures.[xii]
All
these vows are to be practices in ‘the thrice threefold way,’ i.e the monk must
not transgress them himself, nor causes somebody else to do so, nor consent to
others doing so, either mentally, vocally or physically.
The
Dasavaikalika Sutra adds a sixth vow,
viz abstaining from taking the night meal.[xiii]
These
Mahavratas, specially ahimsa, form the basis of Jain monasticism, and have led
to the formation of numerous rules, and regulations, as well as exceptions to
the rules to deal with unusual situations.
Samitis and
Guptis
The
practice of ahimsa is strengthened by five samitis
and three guptis.[xiv]
The five samitis prescribe carefulness regarding movement (irya), speech (bhasa),
begging (esana), receiving and
keeping things (adana-nikepana) and
excretory function (utsarga). The
three guptis consist of control of mind, speech and body. The tenfold religion
(dharma) of the monk consists of forbearance, modesty, uprightness,
truthfulness, purity, restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and
continence.[xv]
Parisaha
Twenty
two parisahas pertain to the troubles
and hardships a monk is often subjected to, and which he must conquer by
patience and forbearance. These include troubles due to hunger and thirst, heat
and cold, mosquitoes and flies, nakedness, wandering life, uncomfortable
lodging, illness, insults and abuses, want of things required, etc.[xvi]
Tapas (austerities):
internal and external
Tapas forms an important part not only
of the life of a Jain monk but of all Jain devotees. So great is the stress
laid on tapas that it is added to the triratnas
to form the fourth pillar of Jainism. It is the mot important means of rapid
elimination of already accumulate karmas (nirjara).
There are in all twelve forms of tapas. The six external austerities are
fasting, observing rules regarding food, begging, control of palate,
mortification of flesh, and living in solitude. Of greater importance, however,
are internal austerities. They are repentance, humility, service to the monks,
study, meditation, and indifference towards the body. Each of these has a
number of sub-varieties which are described in detail in Jain scriptures.[xvii]
Daily routine
of a monk
According
to the Uttaradhyayana Sutra a monk is
supposed to sleep only three hours at night, and must spend rest of the time in
study or meditation.[xviii]
His daily duties consist of study, meditation, repentance for sins, begging
alms, careful inspection of belongings to avoid injury to insects, and
confessions of faults. Latter canonical texts prescribe the following six
obligatory duties (avasyaka)[xix]
for monks; (i) samayika, i.e practice of equanimity through meditation, (ii) caturvimsati stava, chanting the praise
of Tirthakaras, (iii) vandana,
veneration of senior monks, (iv) pratikramana,
expiation of sins, (v) kayotsarga,
standing or sitting in one posture for a length of time, and (vi) pratyakhyana, renunciation of certain
foods and activities.
Traditionally
the Jain monks lead wandering life, except during the four months of rainy
season. There are no monasteries but halls (upasrayas)
are built by lay devotees where monks can temporarily stay. There are elaborate
rules and instructions for begging, for the manner of wandering, and for stay.
During the two and a half millennia of growth of Jain monasticism, procedures
for dealing with various degrees of transgressions and their punishments have
been evolved. The Svetambara texts given ten prayascittas, or punishments the mild ones being confession and
condemnation. The harder ones include fasting, penance, shortening of
seniority. The severest is expulsion.[xx]
Church-hierarchy
A
candidate having accepted the monastic life is put on probation after a
preliminary diksa called samayika-caritra.
This involves vows to avoid sins and to practise equanimity. Such a probationer
is called a seha, samanera or antevasi. He must prove himself worthy
of monastic life and must show implicit obedience to seniors. After a variable
period of seven days to six months, he is confirmed (upasampada) and given the final vows, the mahavratas.
Therea is an elder monk, senior either
in age or standing as a monk. This seniority is called paryaya. The next higher office is upadhyana. His chief duty is to teach the scriptures (sastras) to
the junior monks. Next higher designation is the acarya. He enjoys certain privileges and must be a man of perfect
self-control and monastic discipline. He must be endowed with the five acaras, viz Jnana-acara, Virya-acara, Chritra-acara, Tapa-acara,and Darsana-acara. He stands at the head of
a group of monks. Besides guiding and controlling them, he is authorized to
initiate and to confirm candidates.
Gani is yet another post. He possesses
eightfold ganisampad; ideal conduct,
scholarship, physique, intellect, instruction, debate, organization, and
monastic discipline.[xxi]
Units or
church-groups
To
facilitate supervision, solidarity, and study of scripture the Jain monks form
different units. Gana is the largest
unit having common scriptures. It consists of a number of kulas headed by an acarya.
No one is allowed to change a gana
except for special reasons like advance study of a particular scriptural text. Sambhoga is yet another formation of a
group taking food together. The most important unit which is even now prevalent
is gaccha. It is supposed to mean the following of one acarya. Sometimes it is
equated with the gana.[xxii]
Jain nuns
Unlike
Buddhism, the Jain order of nuns has been a distinct feature of Jain church
from the very beginning. Mahavira had in his congregation greater number of
nuns (nearly 36,000) than monks, and this state prevails even today. Like men,
women also renounce for various reasons. Cases of child-widows becoming nuns
are not wanting. Generally the permission of the guardian must be obtained.
Even women must do kesa-loca.
Nuns
are organized under their officers. Ganini,
pravartini, theri and bhikkuni are
the offices in descending order of importance and seniority. A young nun not
yet confirmed is called ksullika. All
the offices of nuns are subordinate to the offices of monks. This subordination
is so supreme that a monk of three years’ standing could become the upadhyaya of a nun of thirty years’
standing.
Like
monks, nuns too lead a wandering life and their rules and regulations are
similar to those of monks. A spotless life and practice of rigorous discipline
are expected, and punishments for transgressions are severe. Monks and nuns are
not allowed to stay under the same shelter except during calamities or under
unforseen circumstances. There are some special rules which help to maintain a
pure and unharrassed life of nuns in the society.[xxiii]
Conclusion
One
of the noteworthy features of Jainism is the close link which exits between its
lay and monastic communities. Jains as a whole are proud of the austere
life-style of their mendicants. The solidarity of the Jain social structure too
depends to a large extent upon the great moral authority exercised by their
austere monks and nuns. The moral decline of the holy men, therefore, becomes a
cause of concern for the whole society. Under such situations, the learned
among the laity are free to point out the imperfections in the conduct of even
the monks. It is noteworthy that some of the important reform movements in
Jainism were initiated by enlightened lay-devotees.
There
are approximately 8,000 Jain monks and nuns in India today, belonging to some
twenty-five different sects. Of the various non-Vedic Sramana traditions,
Jainism alone has survived in India till today against heavy odds. This speaks
volumes for its vitality and adaptability.
References:
[i]
Tattvartha-Sutra ( of Umasvati). Text with Hindi exposition (following
Svetambara tradition) by Sukhalalji Sanghvi. Jain Samskriti Samsodhana Mandala,
1952, 2nd Ed. VIII, i.
[ii]
Thananga Sutra, in `Angasuttani, Jain Visva Bharati, lanadu, Vikram Samvat
2031, III, 4:210.
[iii] Prof.
Kumar, J.A. quoted by Deo S.B. in History of Jain Monachism, from inscriptions
and literature. Deccan College Research Institute, Poona 6. 1956. P.47
[iv] Deo
S.B. History of Jain Monachism, op. Cit. P.52
[v] Ibid;
p.48
[vi] Ibid;
p.54
[vii] Ibid;
p.78
[viii]
Thananga Sutra, Commentary by Abhyyadev, quoted by Deo S.B. in History of Jain
Monachism, op. Cit; p.140
[ix] Deo;
S.B; op. cit; p.140
[x] Thananga
Sutra, op. cit; X, 15.
[xi] Jaini
P.S; The Jain Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Varanasi, 1979 p. 244
[xii]
Acaranga Sutra, tr. By H.Jacobi, in Jaina Sutras, 1:1 –213, Sacred Books of the
East, 1980, Vol. 22, 15, i.v.(condensed).
[xiii] (a) Dasa-Vaikalika
Sutra, Tr. By Kastur Chand Lalvani, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi Varanasi
[xiv] (a)
Uttaradhyayana Sutra, tr. By H. Jacobi in Jain Sutras, 2:1-232. Sacred Books of
the East, Vol. 45, Ch.
[xv] (a)
Tattvarha Sutra, op. cit; IX-6, (b) Samana Suttam, op. cit; 84
[xvi] Uttaradhyayana Sutra , Ch.
[xvii] Ibid;
Ch. XXX
[xviii]
Ibid; Ch. XXXVI
[xix] Samana
Suttam; op. cit. 424
[xxi] Ibid;
p. 22
[xxii] Ibid;
p.33
