If
one happens to visit a Jain temple one will find images showing Tirthankaras in
meditation either in the sitting or in the standing posture. Indeed, meditation
is so integrally connected with Jainism that it has figured in its art and
literature, in fact, in every sphere of its life and culture. Truly it has been
said, ‘ What the head is to the body and the root to the tree, meditation is to
religion.’(1). Just as the head is
the centre of consciousness in the human body, so also the centre of vitality
in all religions is meditation without which they become lifeless.
Nevertheless, in Jainism, with the lapse of centuries meditation got
subordinated in importance to other religions practices, so much so that not
only non-Jains, but most of the followers of Jainism themselves have hardly any
idea of meditation techniques in Jainism. The fact however remains that Jainism
lays the greatest stress on meditation. According to Jain ethics, samvara or
prevention of the accumulation of new karmas, and nirjara or the washing away of the already accumulated karmas, are
the two means of attaining liberation or moksa. Nirjara is accompanied through two sets of six external and six
internal austerities, tapas. Of the
six more important internal tapas, dhyana or meditation is the foremost.
Thus meditation is considered the principal means of liberation.(2).
What
are the original meditation techniques in Jainism? How did Tirthankara Mahavir
meditate? Why has meditation almost disappeared in a religion where it was
given so great an importance? What is the form of meditation practised by Jains
in modern times? To answer these questions we must briefly review the history
of mediation in Jainism.
Historical survey of mediation in Jainism
The
history of meditation can be traced from Lord Mahavir onwards. Lord Mahavir
spent most of his twelve years of sadhana in mediation which often lasted for
days, or even for months together. The monks of Mahavir’s time were eulogized
as dhyana-kosthopagatah, ‘One who has
entered the chamber of meditation.’ A four-fold meditation technique was in
vogue then, consisting of the following:
1. Kayotsarga-
Reducing bodily activities, giving up attachment to the body and realizing its
separateness from consciousness: These processes are collectively called kayotsarga. We identify ourselves with
the body and consider it a conscious entity. Scriptures, however, declare that
the physical body is inert and
consciousness is different from it. Actually to experience this difference is
the aim of kayotsarga. This technique
is also called bheda vijnana.
2. Bhavana.
Contemplation of the meaning, importance and significance of the Jaina
triratna, namely, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct (darsana, jnana, and caritra); and of dispassion (vairagyam) is called bhavana.(3). This can be comparable to manana of Vedanta.
3. Vipasyana.
According to Muni Nathmal, an authority on Jainism, this was the original
meditation technique practised and preached by Lord Mahavir. It means to be
aware of one’s own self. Lord Mahavir taught, ‘ See the self by the Self’ (4), that is to say, observe the gross
body by consciousness. We should begin by becoming aware of the gross and
proceed towards the subtle(5). As we
try to be aware of the sensations and activities of the gross body, our
awareness expands and we are able to observe innumerable minute activities and
events happening in and around us which we were unaware of earlier. The next
step is to observe the subtle body, that is, to observe the constantly arising
thought-waves; desires, passions and their subtle motives; the subconscious
impressions as they appear on the surface of the conscious mind, etc. Finally
the pure consciousness beyond these is reached.
4. Vicaya.
This will be described in detail later in this article.
During Lord Mahavir’s time
thousands of monks practised meditation in seclusion, in caves and forests, and
a large number of them achieved the highest spiritual attainments descried in
Jain scriptures, namely, the three types of direct knowledge: avadhi-jnana or the knowledge of objects
which are too distant or minute to be known by the senses; manah-paryaya-jnana or the knowledge of the past and present
thoughts of others; and kevalala-jnana
or omniscience. These meditative practices and the presence of so many
perfected monks lasted up to the earlier half of the second century after
Mahavir’s death(6) (C. 400 B.C). In
the latter half of the second century (C. 300 B.C) major changes took place.
A
twelve-year long famine in Magadha Bihar ) and its adjacent areas claimed the
lives of thousands of monks who gave up the body by voluntary fasting. This
created an irreparable loss to Jainism and posed a serious problem for the
monastic order. Since the vitality of a religious order depends to a large
extent upon the unimpeded flow of scriptural knowledge from one generation to
another, it became necessary to learn the esoteric traditions and the deeper
meaning of the scriptural texts from those few surviving monks who knew them.
Emphasis therefore shifted from meditation to svadhaya, (7) scriptural
studies. Various rules were framed to the effect, and monks were enjoined to
spend twelve hours a day in studies. Thus the predominantly meditative and
mystical monasticism gradually became scholastic and intellectual.
Another
reason for this shift was the onset of what may be called ‘philosophical age’.
Nyaya and Vaisesika schools of philosophy were established around the 1st
century B.C. During the reign of Emperor Ashoka Buddhism gained ascendancy.
These systems of thought and the already existing Vedic Schools started vying
with one another for supremacy, and Jainism was drawn into the stream of
religious polemics. Debates and discussions ensued in which attacks and counter-attacks
were made. All this necessitated the monks’ learning the art of debate, logic
and rhetoric. Introspective and contemplative monks averse to social activity
were forced to bear social responsibility and to engage in the propagation of
the tenets of Jainism. Thus started a line of Acaryas who fortified monastic
order. Events of this period indicate that monks acquired psychic powers and
used them to influence kings and rulers so that they may support the order.
Although
there was thus a shift of emphasis toward loka-sangraha
or social welfare, there were also born during this period spiritual men who
continued to lay stress on meditation and emphasized the fact that religion
could not be preserved merely by victories in debates or by miracles and
occultism or by the patronage of kings. They showed that character was more
important than conduct and prescribed greater austerities. Acarya Kundakunda
and Pujyapada wrote several valuable books in which the original meditation
techniques were described in an unadulterated form. Jinabhadra Suri composed
the famous treatise on meditation entitled ‘ Dhyana Sataka’.
Up
to Acarya Kundakunda ( 1st Century A.D) meditation techniques
essentially remained unaltered, but adepts were lacking and it came to be believed
that the higher spiritual realizations and the acquisition of the three types
of direct knowledge was no more possible. Excerpts in meditation hold that for
higher and subtler stage of mediation the build of the body, especially of the
nervous, skeletal and respiratory systems, must be strong so as to be able to
withstand the impact of spiritual experience. As centuries rolled by, the
physical frame of people in general became smaller and weaker, and it was held
that sukla dhyana, the higher form of
meditation could no longer be practised. This may or may not be true but
statements made by Acharyas to this effect had a discouraging influence upon
those who otherwise would have at least attempted meditation seriously.
In
the 8th Century A.D. Haribhadra Suri, a great scholar and yogi,
incorporated the then popular yoga system of Patanjali into Jainism. This was
the first point of modification introduced in the original methods of
meditation. He further taught that everything done by a monk with a spiritual
end in view and without attachment should be considered yoga. While this may be
true, it decidedly undermined the importance of meditation and dampened the
urge to dive deep into meditation. In the widening of the concept of yoga,
depth of meditation was lost.
During
the next phase of development, Jainism was influenced by Tantras and Hatha
Yoga. This was the period when major changes occurred in Jaina meditative
practices. In early Jaina literature there are no instructions about japa. But
after Haribhadra Suri such procedures as ‘navakar
mahakalpa’, and ‘padmavati kalpa’,
relating to Japa were introduced. Although, mantras had been used earlier for
material gain and psychic powers, now their efficacy and use for spiritual gain
was also recognized. From Hatha Yoga Jainism took pranayama. Meditation upon
cakras and lotuses, the technique of a pindastha
dhyana and its dharanas, and mantras with bija were probably taken from
tantras.
Although
the seed of devotion in the form of faith in the deva, guru and scripture was
present in Jainism from the very beginning, it was influenced by the Bhakti
schools of Hinduism including Saivism. Muni Anandaghana though a yogi, used to
worship Tirthankara as Beloved and has composed many devotional hymns. In one
of the Jain sects elaborate ritualistic worship of Tirthankara as a new born
babe is popular.
Definitions and classification of dhyana
Jaina
scholars have given various definitions of dhyana. According to Umasvati,
restraining the attention of mind on some one object is dhyana(8). In Jainism nirodha not only means
restraint of the mind but also includes control of speech and bodily
activities. Accordingly, dhyana is of three types: kayika, vacika and manasika
or of the body, of the speech and the mind. According to Jinabhadra Suri, ‘ The
stationary state of mind is dhyana while its moving state is citta.’ (9). Acharya Ramasena extends the
definition of dhyana to include other states of mind as well. According to him
dhyana is not only the control of thought waves and thinking of a single
object, but the state of self-awareness without thoughts also is dhyana. (10).
Lord
Mahavir preached, ‘ See the self by the Self.’ On the basis of this scriptural
injunction some scholars state that dhyana means awareness which in Jainism is
called passana and is the same as vipasyana of Buddism.
A
third meaning of dhyana is experiencing a moment free from attachment and
aversion. (11). Acharya Hemchandra
states that as long as there is the slightest effort of will to do something,
there cannot be total dissolution of mind, laya. So, relaxing the body and
without attempting to control the senses or the mind one must try to experience
that moment when there is no attachment or aversion, there are no likes and
dislikes. (12). In other words to
try just ‘to be‘ is dhyana.
Derived
from the Sanskrit root ‘ dhyai’ to
think, (13) dhyana etymologically
means all forms of concentrated thinking, and it is in this sense that dhyana
is considered an austerity in Jainism. This thinking can be of four types:
arta, raudra, dharma and sukla, which may be translated as, sorrowful, violent,
virtuous and pure respectively. Of these four types of thinking, the first two
are not dhyana in the sense of meditation but are moods or preoccupations of mind
in undesirable thinking which leads to further bondage. They must therefore be
carefully avoided. (14)
Constant reflection on how to get rid of an unfavourable
thing (anistayoga), how to possess a
desirable thing which has gone out of possession (istaviyoga), worry about ailment (rogacinta) and hankering after enjoyment (nidana), these are the four types of arta-dhyana. A constant reflection related to violence,
untruthfulness, theft and the protection of an acquisition are the four types
of raudra-dhyana.
Dharma dhyana
The
third type of thinking called virtuous concentration is the first step towards
salvation and every pious Jain is enjoined to practice it. It is of four types:
(15)
1. Ajna Vicaya: What is the commandment,
ajna of an omniscient personage and of one devoid of passion? What sort of
commandment it ought to be? To apply one’s mind to an investigation of this
kind and thus lay bare the commandment in question is called dharma dhyana
devoted to a consideration of ajna or commandment.
2. Apaya
Vicaya: To apply one’s mind to a consideration of the nature of defilement
like greed, anger, lust etc. and the means of getting rid of them is called
dharma dhyana devoted to a consideration of apaya or disaster.
3. Vipaka
Vicaya: What consequences that are being experienced are due to which
karmas and what karmas that are accumulated are to yield what consequences? To apply one’s mind to a consideration of such
questions is called dharma dhyana devoted to vipaka or consequence of karma.
4. Samsthana
Vicaya: To apply one’s mind to a consideration of the nature of the
universe; this is called dharma dhyana devoted to a consideration of samasthana
or structure ( of the universe). This fourth type of dharma dhyana called
samsthana vicaya has been further classified into four sub-types called
pindastha, padastha, rupastha and rupatita by Hemchandra. (16)
(i) Pindastha
dhyana: ( Pinda = a body, corporeal frame). Meditation upon the Inner Self,
the Atman, residing within the human body with the help of imagery involving
gross elements, earth, fire, air and water, is called pindastha dhyana.
It
contains of five steps called dharanas(17)
to be practised one after the other so that a mind unaccustomed to thinking of
subtle objects may be gradually trained, step by step to think from gross to
subtle and still subtler objects till it is able to meditate upon the pure
nature of the Atman.
(a) Parthivi
dharana (parthivi = pertaining to earth). Imagine a calm waveless ocean of
milk in which there is a thousand-petalled golden lotus of the diameter of a
hundred thousand yojans. Imagine a yellow
coloured central stalk as high as mount
Sumeru
(b) Agneyi
dharana (agneyi = related to fire). Next, the meditator imagines that in
the region of his navel there is a sixteen-petalled white lotus facing upward.
The sixteen vowels of the Sanskrit alphabet are written one on each petal,
while in the centre the bija mantra hrim is inscribed. Atop the navel-lotus
there is another eight-petalled black
lotus facing downwards, in the region of the heart. The eight black petals
represent the eight karmas which are to be eliminated. The next step is to
imagine that first smoke, and then sparks of
fire and finally flames are arising from the bija hrim, which starts
burning the upper lotus. Flames then advance towards the head where they
bifurcate and descend from sides and reunite below to form an inverted triangle
of smokeless fire with the letter ra written all over it. Finally the fire
returns from where it had originated and subsides after burning the karmas and
consuming the body of the mediator.
(c) Vayavi or
maruti dharana ( vdyavi, maruti = related to air). Now the meditator thinks
that a strong wind is blowing which carries away with it all the ashes left
over after the burning of karmas. The wind then subsides and the effulgent
Atman of the mediator starts shining free from the defilement of karma.
(d) Varuni
dharana ( varuni= pertaining to water). Now the aspirant imagines the sky
overcast with dark dense clouds which start pouring water which washes away the
last bit of ashes sticking to the Atman. Now the Atman shines forth completely
purified of the least trace of karmas.
(e) Tattavati
dharana: This consists in thinking of the pure, formless, taintless,
blissful Atman shining like a full moon free from the bonds of karma, of the
body and mind. The meditator thinks that all the marks of a siddha or perfected
soul have appeared in him and that he has transcended disease, old age and
death and has attained eternal peace.
Each
dharana must be practised over and over again and the aspirant must move on the
next one only when the earlier one has been mastered. This technique enables
one to practise the higher form of meditation called Sukla dhyana.
(ii)
Padastha dhyana (18) : Meditation done with the help of a sacred word formula, a
pada, is called padastha dhyana. Every letter of the Sanskrit alphabet is
considered a mantra of great potency and when meditated upon according to
prescribed rules, leads to great good here and hereafter. There are a number of
ways in which this meditation can be done; two of these are described below as
illustrations.
(a) Imagine a sixteen-petalled lotus at the navel, a
twenty-four-petalled lotus at the heart and an eight-petalled lotus in the
head. The sixteen vowels of the Sanskrit alphabet are inscribed on the sixteen
petals of the lotus at the naval, and the consonants on the petals of the other
lotuses. Begin with the meditation of the lower lotus and proceed upwards.
(b) Imagine a lotus in the heart, the five petals of
which are respectively of white, red, yellow, green and black colours. The five
parts of the most sacred Jaina mantra, the navakar mantra, are written on the
petals, starting from ‘namo arihantanam’ on the white petal. The aspirant
concentrates on these lotus-petals and the mantras written on them.
(iii) Rupastha dhyana: (19) ( rupa= form, figure). Meditation based upon the visual
pictures of Tirthankara and incidents from his life is called rupastha dhyana.
Imagine, for example, the divine auditorium called Samavasarana, in the centre
of which Lord Mahavir is seated on a jeweled throne with three umbrellas
(chatra)over his head and attendants waving camara: Gods and goddesses, men,
women and animals are peacefully seated in their assigned places forsaking all
envy and hatred, and are listening to the soul-enthralling discourses of the
Lord. The meditator should think that he is one among the audience sharing the
bliss of the divine presence.
Classification of Meditation Techniques in Jainism
(****** The chart to be drawn)
In a
similar manner other scenes from the life of Lord Mahavir, his austerities, his
wanderings, his bhiksa etc. can be meditated upon. The meditator can even
imagine that he is the Tirthankara, the Jina himself. This is considered a very
effective method because it amounts to meditation on one’s own pure
consciousness free from the blemishes of karma and evil tendencies like
attachment, aversion, lust and greed.
(iv) Ruppatita dhyana: (20)
or formless meditation which consists in meditation upon the pure formless
blissful consciousness, the real nature of the Atman.
Sukla dhyana:
The various types of meditation
described so far prepare the meditator for the most important state in the
Jaina path of perfection when he is able to practise sukla dhyana or pure
meditation. Intense stillness and concentration of mind achieved with the help
of scriptural texts is called sukla dhyana. (21). Like other types of dhyana, sukla dhyana too is divided into
four subtypes. The first two subtypes called prthaktva-vitarkasavicar and ekatva-vitarka-nirvicar are practised
by those who have not yet attained omniscience while the last two types called suksma-kriya-pratipati and vyuparata-kriya-nivrtti ( or samucchinna-kriya-nivrtti) are possible
only for one who has ascended the highest ladder of perfection and has become
omniscient or kevalajnani.
Vitarka means sruti or a scriptural
text. (22). In the first type of
meditation the mediator takes up for consideration any one of the tattvas or
substances like atom, soul etc. described in the scriptures and meditates on
its various (prthaktva) modes like permanence, destructibility, tangibility,
intangibility etc. from various viewpoints. Again in this thinking there is a
transition from one meaning to another, from one word to another from the
meaning to the word from the word to the meaning, and also from one type of
yoga(23) to another. Therefore this
meditation is called prthaktva-vitarka-savicar
i.e meditation on various modes of a single substance based upon scriptural
texts and accompanied by conceptual thinking of word, meaning and yoga.
In the second type of meditation,
the meditator takes up for consideration only one mode of any object and
undertakes reflection dominated by oneness (ekatva).Moreover,
there is no change in the form or transition from the word to the meaning or
vice versa. Hence it is called ekatva-vitarka
/nirvicar. Just as by means of a magical chant the poison of a snake
circulating throughout the body is concentrated on the bitten spot, so also by
this meditation the wandering mind is made steady on one subject. Ultimately
the mind becomes absolutely calm; its fickleness is done away with and it no
more wavers, with the result that all impurities concealing knowledge are
washed away and omniscience makes its appearance.
In the third type of
meditation subtle bodily activity persists that is why it is called
suksma-kriya-pratipati dhyana. In the last type called vyuparata-kriya-nivrtti
dhyana, there is no activity whatsoever, gross or subtle, of body, mind and
speech. Through the instrumentality of the fourth subtype of dhyana all asrava
or inflow of karmas and bandha or bondage cease altogether; all karma is
annihilated and moksa is attained. In the third and fourth subtypes of sukla dhyana
no scriptural knowledge is made use of. Hence these two are called analambana or ‘devoid of prop’.
Concluding
remarks:
This is a brief review of the
meditation techniques as found described in the vast literature on the subject.
( The reader is requested to refer to the chart which shows the
inter-relationship of the different types of Jaina mediation). Apart from
these, there are other methods also for concentration of mind. In modern times
the practice of Japa has become the most popular spiritual exercise with the
devout Jainas. The navakar mantra, in its complete form with nine padas, or its
abridged modification is repeated keeping count on the fingers or with the help
of rosary.
The subject of meditation is
intimately connected with the Jaina concept of the ladder of spiritual ascent
or the ‘guna-sthanas’. The books on the subject also describe the
qualifications required and the special virtues to be practised for the
attainment of success in the various types of meditation. Each subtype
described above has its own specific psychological effect, when practised
systematically. All these, though of great importance and interest, cannot be
described in this brief outline, which is meant only to give a general idea and
to stimulate further interest in the subject.
References
1. Arhat Dagbhali in Isibhasiyaim, edited by W.
Schubring. L.D. Institute publication, Ahmedabad.
2. Jinabhadra
Ksama Sramana, Dhyana Sataka, Vinaya Sundarcaran Grantamala, Jamnagar, V.S.
1997.
(b) Siddasena
Gani, Tattvanusasana, Part ii, (Surat: Jivanacanda Sakarcanda Jhaveri. 1930 ) 56.
3. Dhyana
Sataka, 30
4. Quoted by
Yugacarya Mahaprajna, in Jaina Yoga (Hindi) (Churu, Rajasthan; Adarsa Sahitya
Sangha Prakasana). P. 187.
5. Acarya
Subhacandra, Jnanarnava, edited by Pundit Balcandra Sastri. (Solapur: Jaina
Sanskriti Sangha. 1977) pp. 33, 4.
6. Mahavir
died approximately 500 years before Christ.
7. Svadhyaya, like dhyana is one of the six internal
austerities and is an important aid to medifation, bereft of the latter, it
soon gets reduced to mere book learning.
8. (a) Umasvati
V. Tattvartha Sutra, with commentary by Sukhlal Sanghvi, and English
translation by K.K. Dixit. (Ahmedabad: L.D. Institure of Indology. 1974) Pp.
9,27
(b) Haribhadra,
Avasyakaniryukti. ( Bombaty Agomodaya Samiti).
9. Dhyana
Sataka. 2.
10.Remsencarya,
quoted by Muni Nathmal in Mahavir ki Sadhana Ka Rahasya (Hindi). ( Churu,
Rajasthan: Adarsa Sahitya Sangha Prakasana) p. 169
11. Acarang
Sutra, 8,40
12.
Hemacandracarya, Yoga Sastra, edited by G.C. Patel (Ahmedabad: Jaina Sahitya
Prakasana Samiti, 1938). Pp. 12, 22-25
13. Tattanusasana,
34
15. Adopted
from the English translation of Tattvartha Sutra.
16. Yoga
Sastra, 7,8
17. (a) Yaga
Sastra, 7,9
(b) Jhanarnava, 34, 3
18. Jnanarnava,
35,1
19.Yoga Sastra
9,7
20. Jnanarnava,
37,16
21. Samavayanga, edited by
Muni Kanaiyalal. (Delhi: Agama Annuyoga Prakasana. 1966) 4. Only the first two
subtypes of sukla dhyana are based on scriptural texts as shall be seen in the
course of the narrative.
22. Tattvartha Sutra, 9,45
23. The word ‘Yoga’ commonly means
either restraint of the mind or ‘union’. In Jaina terminology, however, it
means activity or Pravrtti. The activities of body, mind and speech are
collectively called tri-yoga.
