Introduction
Swami
Vivekananda defines Non-violence as never
producing pain by thought, word, and deed, in any living being, According to
him there is no virtue higher than non - injury. There is no happiness higher
than what a man obtains by this attitude of non - offensiveness, to all
creation.
It can not be
denied that Ahimsa or non – violence is a universal law, and has been accepted
in all cultures and all religions in some form or the other. “Treat others as
you want to be treated” – this fundamental principle of existence has been
reiterated in all religions.
Yet Ahimsa and
its practice have taken different form in different religions due to times and
situations in which they evolved. This can also be seen in the three religions under
our study viz. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism and is reflected in the lives of
the founders and prophets of these religions and in their mythologies.
Mythologically, Hinduism does not seem to
advocate absolute non–violence. Animal sacrifice in Yajnas was prevalent in
ancient India
Jains have
twenty four prophets, all of whom were kshatrias by birth, but gave up
non-vegetarian food and wars and became monks. Mahavira, the last tirthankara
did intense austerities and forbore extreme hardships. He was so fully
established in non–violence that even a venomous snake could not harm him and
was tamed.
Buddhism is
replete with Jataka stories which emphasize compassion of the Bodhisattva.
Buddha too was an embodiment of compassion and was ready to sacrifice his own
life to save even a lamb. He also influenced two kings and dissuaded them from
killing in war.
From this
introductory preview, we infer that in Jainism, Ahimsa is given the place of
the highest virtue; in Buddhism, it is equated with compassion, and in Hinduism
it is only one of the values to be practiced as a means to other end like
dharma or moksha.
Precepts on Non –Violence in Jainism
Ahimsa is the very soul of the Jain way of life. It
is that fulcrum on which the whole conduct of a Jain revolves. According to
Jain scriptures ahimsa is a goddess which supports all creatures. It is like
water for the thirsty, food for the hungry and medicine for the sick
(Prashnavyakarana sutra 2.1.21-22). It conduces to the well-being of all
creatures, moving or immobile. According to Sutrakritanga, one must always
remember that Ahimsa is the essence of religion. To be learned implies that one
must not kill any creature (Sutrakritanga 1.4.10). Whether knowingly or unknowingly one should not kill
living beings, mobile or immobile, in this world nor should cause them to be
killed by others. Just as pain is not agreeable to you, it is so with others.
Knowing this principle of equality, treat other with respect and compassion.
Mahavir has said, “Killing a living being is killing one's own self; showing
compassion to a living being is showing compassion to oneself. He who desires
his own good, should avoid causing any harm to any living being. The being whom
you want to kill is the very same as you are yourself, the being whom you want
to be kept under obedience is the very same as you yourself.” (Samana Suttam,
147-159) It is stated in Dashavaikalika sutra that
since Ahimsa does good to all creatures, it is given the highest place by Lord
Mahavir (6.9). according to Acharaya Amritchandra Suri, all the rules of
conduct and moral codes, inhibitions and injunctions, come under the preview of
Ahimsa. (Purushartha-siddhi-upaya)
In the modern times, Mahatma Gandhi has laid the greatest
stress on Ahimsa. Having been born and brought up in Gujrat, Gandhiji was
greatly influenced by Jainism in general, and by a Jain saint, Srimad
Rajchandra in particular. His spiritual mentor too was a Jain. And there could
be no better introduction to the Jain concept o fAhimsa than some of the views
of Gandhiji. Literally speaking, ahimsa means non-violence. But According to
him, it has much higher,
infinitely higher meaning. It means that you may not offend anybody; you may
not harbour uncharitable thought, even in connection with those who consider
your enemies. To one who follows this doctrine, there are no enemies. A man who
believes in the efficacy of this doctrine finds in the ultimate stage, when he
is about to reach the goal, the whole world at his feet. If you express your
love- Ahimsa-in such a manner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so
called enemy, he must return that love.
The
word nonviolence connotes a negative, almost passive condition, whereas the
Sanskrit term ahimsa suggests a dynamic State of mind in which power is
released. When Gandhi speaks of ahimsa as a law, we should take him at his
word. Indeed, it was a law for him like gravity; and could be demonstrated in
the midst of human affairs. Gandhi even characterized his practice of ahimsa as
a science, and said once, "I have been practicing with scientific
precision nonviolence and its possibilities for an unbroken period of over 50
years." He was a precise man, meticulous and exacting. He valued
experience as the test of truth, and the nonviolence he pursued and called
"true nonviolence" had to conform to experience in all levels of
human affairs. "I have applied it," he declares, "in every walk
of life: domestic, institutional, economic, political. And I know of no single case
in which it has failed." Anything short of this total application did not
interest Gandhi, because ahimsa sprang from and worked in the same continuum as
his religion, politics, and personal life. Daily practice could determine its
value, "when it acts in the midst of and in spite of opposition," and
he advised critics to observe the results of his experiments rather than
dissect his theories.
Of the five vows
or vratas viz. non-violence, truth, abstinence from stealing, chastity and non
possessiveness, ahimsa or non-violence is the first and the main vow. According
to Sri Srut Sagara Suri, truth etc. are meant to support this main vow ahimsa,
just as water, manure etc. are meant for the germination of the plant from the
seed, and its growth(Commentary on Tattvartha Sutra).
In
Jain thought carelessness (pramada) is intimately associated with Ahimsa. A
person who is passionate or acts thoughtlessly or one who tries to practice
ahimsa cunningly and at the same time wants to satisfy his strong passions, is
called a pramatta. In Jainism anger, pride, deceit and greed are categorized as
passions (kashaya). Again, one having strong attachment to worldly objects and
given too much to sleep is also a pramatta. The idea is that Ahimsa cannot be
rightly practiced unless a person is careful and alert in every way.
This leads to
another concept of Ahimsa in Jainism: that of internal, mental or nishchaya
ahimsa and external, empirical or vyavahara ahimsa. According to this concept
one is not liable to sin even if he injures creatures but is free from
passions. Quoting Pravachansara, Sruta Sagar Suri states that if minute insects
die crushed under the feet of a sage who walks carefully so as to avoid injury
to creatures (irya samity, to be explained later), the sage does not incur sin.
On the contrary a pramatta or a careless person incurs sin of violence (himsa)
whether injury is caused by him or not. Arguing in this line it is concluded
that absence of attachment and other passions is ahimsa and their presence is himsa.
That does not mean that external himsa is totally unimportant.
The whole world
is full of creatures large or small. How then can a monk live without causing
injury to any creature? The answer is that a careful monk engaged in meditation
and contemplation does not incur sin merely by killing small creatures. Besides
creatures are of two types, minute and large. The minute ones cannot be stopped
in there movement neither do they obstruct others, hence injury to them is not
considered himsa. All effort must be made to prevent injury to the larger
creatures and one who does so is a true ahimsaka.
On the basis of
the above principles, Jains have evolved an elaborate life style and rules and
regulations of conduct. These rules of conduct have been divided into two:
Those for monks and those for householders. The vows of monks are called
Mahavratas and that of house holders, anuvratas. The commentator of
Purusharthasiddhiupaya, Ajit Prasad Jain, states that it is important for an
ahimsaka to take the vows. One not taking the vows would have an inclination
towards himsa whether he practically commits it or not. (Purusharthasiddhiupaya
commentary on 48th verse).
For the perfect
practice of Mahavratas, Jains have also classified creatures into five
categories according to the sense organs; the first and the subtlest being the
ones with only one sense organ of touch and the most evolved having all five
sense organs. When a practitioner does not kill mobile as well as immobile
beings in thought, word and deed, even in dream, he is observing mahavratas.
The rules of
conduct conducive to ahimsa include what are called guptis and samitis i.e.
restraints and careful conduct which are extremely useful in observing
mahavratas. Guptis include:
- Manas Gupti or restraint of mind: An ahimsaka must control his mind and must not think evil thoughts. He must only think noble thoughts which make him purer and more unselfish.
- Vachana Gupti: A practitioner of ahimsa refrains from uttering harsh words that may insult others or hurt their sentiments. He does not flatter. Control of tongue means to speak less, but truthful and pleasant words.
Samitis include:
- Irya Samiti: This means carefulness while walking so that no insect or creature is injured.
- Bhasha Samiti: An ahimsak must give up back-biting, ridiculing others, talking ill of others, self praise or use of harsh words. He speaks what is good for himself and others. This carefulness in speech is called Bhasha samiti.
- Eshana Samiti: This rule applies to monks and entails carefulness in accepting food from others so that no harm is caused to anyone.
- Adananikshepa Samiti: An ahimsaka must keep a thing on the ground or lift it after careful inspection so that no creature is hurt.
- Alokita-pana-bhojana Samiti: To eat and drink during the day preferably in sun light so that one can clearly observe and avoid injury to creatures, which may not be possible in dark.
- Utsarg Samiti: This requires discharge of excrements at a place free from living beings and where there is no objection from anybody.
Ahimsa anuvrata:
For
the fulfillment of Ahimisa anuvrata, a Jain householder practices seven vratas. They are:
- Digvrata: which involves restriction of movement only within specified area and abstaining from going outside the restricted area. Observance of this vow makes the householder a follower of Mahavrata onside the restricted area.
- Deshavrata: i.e. not to go to impure or objectionable places, within the restricted area.
- Anartha danda-vrata: to give up certain sinful activities.
- Samayika vrata: vow of regular meditation on equality of all creatures.
- Pradosh-upavasa vrata: vow to keep fast on 8th and 14th lunar day in a fortnight.
- Upabhoja-paribhoja parinama-vrata; vow to set restriction on the use of items of food and drink, and the use of bedding, utensils, bags etc.
- Atithisamvibhaga vrata: vow to entertain guests with food etc.
The first three are called guna
vrata and the latter four are called shiksha vratas
The Jain
acharayas have gone into great details of these seven observances or vows, and
have also stated the ways by which these vows might get vitiated. For example
in the third vrata, the practitioner must avoid thinking of harming others,
jealousy, advising people to do unfair trade, or informing fisherman where fish
or animals are available, encouraging people to sell or purchase cattle, to dig
earth, light fire etc. without any purpose; collect and sell creatures like
cats, snakes, dove etc. or articles like poison or swords, and to read or make
others read or listen to books that develops the feeling of himsa, jealousy or
attachment.
One may get the
impression that agriculture and use of weapons against an enemy by a king are
not endorsed by Jainism. However, Jinasene clarifies that agriculture as a
means of livelihood for a householder, and use of arms for protection against
an enemy are allowed. Somadeva, however states that a ruler should not use
weapons while dealing with the weak, the virtuous and the innocent. We can
conclude that agriculture and use of arms, when essential is not prohibited in
Jainism.
The Ahimsa anuvrata is
transgressed in five ways:
1.
Bandha: i.e. to tie an animal or to restrain any being
from going freely to the desired places.
2.
Vadha: to beat with stick.
3.
Cheda: to pierce nose, ear or other limbs of any animal.
4.
Atibhararpana: to load animals beyond their power of
carrying and,
5.
Anna-pana-nirodha: not to supply food and drink to
human beings or cattle at the time when they require.
Transgression of Digvrata Digvrata also can be transgress in five ways.
- By going beyond the prescribed limit over a mountain.
- By going down in a well.
- By entering holes and caves by crawling.
- By increasing the limits of area set earlier, prompted by greed, infatuation or for purpose of sale of articles to get more profit and
- By going beyond the restriction, forgetting them.
Transgressions of Deshavrata
include sell or purchase of articles in the prohibited area; to get one’s work
done through some one also in the prohibited area; to convey one’s message to
people residing in the prohibited area secretly or through signs like coughing
etc.; to get the work done in the prohibited area by showing one’s body or
limbs, or by throwing pebbles. Needless to say, this transgression will have
different implications in the present changed circumstances.
Transgressions of Anarthadanda
vrata include use of discourteous words mixed with mockery on account of
excessive attachment, infatuation; making indecent bodily movements, unguarded
and excessive speech, with obstinacy and
without any purpose; doing too much without due deliberation or thought, and to
spend too much on food items, intoxicants, and on property like furniture,
ornaments, utensils etc.
Transgressions of Samayika
Vrata include evil activities of
mind, speech and body fraught with anger, pride, illusion and greed; lack of
control over ones limbs, use of meaningless words and remaining mentally
pensive; lack of enthusiasm for meditation, and to forget the hymns and chants
in praise of God due to lack of concentration.
Transgressions of
Prosadhopavasa Vrata include use of place for answering calls of nature
without cleaning it or carefully inspecting it to avoid harming insects etc,
lifting objects of worship without cleaning or inspecting them; sleep on a bed,
without seeing or cleaning it; having disregard to religious duties due to
hunger and thirst and to forget what is worth being done.
There are fifteen specified trades, which should be known and avoided by a Jain. They are:
Trades in which: (i)furnaces are used, (ii) trees
are cut; (iii) Trades in fermented goods, such as liquor (iv) in earning by way
of renting animals, birds, etc.; (v) Trades involving excavations and
explosions (vi) Trades in ivory, bones, horns, fur, etc.(vii) in manufacturing
or the processes concerned with crushing (viii) Trades in lard, honey, meat,
fat, etc.(ix) in sealing wax, etc.(x) in poisonous and toxic substances, such
as opium, and pesticides (xi) in which animals, birds, fish, etc. are tortured
or killed (xii) in which animals, birds, etc. are amputated, (xiii) in which
fires are set in forests, fields, etc. (xiv) in which lakes, wells, ponds, etc.
are dried up (xv) in which wicked men, prostitutes, or call girls are
supported.
Concept of Himsa in Jainism
Since
Ahimsa is given the greatest importance in Jain way of life, it is but natural
that the Jain acharyas would go into the details of the concept of himsa also.
According to Jainism, himsa is of two types: external, which is technically
called dravya himsa and internal or mental, called bhava himsa. The soul or
atman being eternal cannot be killed. Only pranas or life is destroyed in himsa
which are ten in number: five powers of the senses, mind, speech, and the three
components of the body viz. strength, respiratory activity and longevity. In external
himsa one, more or all these are destroyed. The thought of himsa, which is a
mental state, falls under the category of bhava himsa. Hence in Tattvartha
Sutra himsa is defined as: Destruction of the ten vitalities or pranas by
attachment, aversion or out of carelessness.
These
two types on himsa are further divided into four:
1)
Purely external or physical violence,
2)
Purely mental violence
3)
Both physical and mental violence
4)
Vocal violence.
In the first
only physical himsa is caused, but there is no thought of it. For example,
insects getting killed in spite of carefully walking due to their being too
minute. In the second, the person resolves to hurt some one but is unable to
act accordingly due to unfavorable circumstances; for example, a criminal resolving
to kill the judge. In the third type both are present. In the fourth type,
there is neither mental resolve nor physical action, but only unpleasant words
are spoken. The harsh words spoken by parents towards their children or
teachers towards their disciples, fall under this category. It is obvious that
from the ethical standard physical violence coupled with mental resolve is the
worst, followed by mental, purely physical without mental resolve, and purely
verbal violence.
Himsa
may happen under three situations: It might have been committed; one may have
committed against ones will and it might have just happened. The first type of
himsa could have been committed consciously or unconsciously. In the first case
the doer of the himsa is guilty since he has done it willfully. In second case
also, he is guilty since he did it out of carelessness. In the second type of
himsa the doer has been forced to commit himsa either physically or
circumstantially. In either case, the doer of himsa incurs sin, although he can
burn it in the fire of repentance. All compulsions and unavoidable situations
are due to ones own weaknesses. The purpose of all moral struggles is to rise
above these compulsions and helpless situations.
According
to another classification there are four types of himsa:
1)
Willfully committed
2)
Committed for self-defence
3)
Himsa involved in professional activities
4)
Himsa involved in activities for survival like cooking,
washing etc.
The commitment of himsa and its fruit depend on the
nature of thought. As has been said already, if one is ceaselessly thinking of
causing harm to others, but does not get the opportunity or has not the courage
to do so, he is a himsaka, even though he does not actually harm others,
whereas a doctor with no intention of harming a patient treats him and the
patient might die suddenly. Here actually the doctor has committed himsa but
since his intention was to cure the patient, he is not liable for such himsa. ( Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 51)
Sometimes
himsa caused in greater degree brings small result, and little himsa produces
serious result. (Ibid, 52) For example, a philanthropist digging a
well for public welfare, kills innumerable insects, and another man may kill
single insect just for fun. The amount of sin generated by a well-digger is
much less than by the other person, who killed a single insect for fun.
Two
persons, committing himsa together might generate different degrees of evil
karma. A servant accompanies his master to shoot a hare, much against his will.
The sin due to the master is more than that of the servant, who went only out
of fear of losing his job.
Himsa
is culpable sometimes before it is committed. For example, a man may have been
contemplating and devising schemes to commit a murder but for some reason or
other fails to put his intention into
action. Sometimes himsa is committed at the time of commission actually. The
example is of a man who actually commits it. Himsa is culpable even if it is
not committed. (Ibid, 54) For example; a person may attempt to
commit a murder but may fail in his attempt. Thus, in all the three instances
of himsa are culpable, for it is the intention to commit himsa that makes one a
himsaka or ahimsaka.
The
sin of himsa may be suffered sometimes by many although committed by one
individual only. For instance, a person may murder some one and he may be
applauded by many. In that case the approvers also will be sinners. On the
other hand, many people may commit himsa, but only one is guilty. A commander
orders his soldiers to shoot all the wild animals around his building. The
soldiers not wishing to kill them have to go against their wish to obey the
commander. The sin committed there by clings in major portion to the
commander.(Ibid, 55). Himsa may bring to one evil fruit and to another the
fruit of ahimsa. For example, a duel may be taking place on the roadside. (Ibid,
56) A number of people may come to
witness it. One amongst the mob may come nearer to these persons (who are
quarreling) and try to save the weaker from the stronger, whereas the others
may instigate both of them to fight against each other. The former one gets the
merit of ahimsa, the latter that of himsa.
Similarly,
ahimsa gives one the demerit of himsa, to another himsa gives the merit of ahimsa
(Ibid, 57) A man may save an innocent one from an assailant. The other one may
abuse him for having saved the victim. The former one gets, undoubtedly, the
fruit of ahimsa, and the latter one is bound by the sin of himsa. If a man
fails in his attempt to save an innocent victim, he will get the merit of
ahimsa even though he did not succeed.7
Positive
aspect of Ahimsa
Sometimes
a charge is made against the doctrine of Ahmisa to the effect that it is
essentially negative in character in the sense that it always prohibits persons
from doing certain activities. It is argued that in Jainism Ahimsa is treated
as mere abstention from Himsa and people are advised in the negative manner
such as not to speak lies, not to steal things, not to have worldly attachments,
etc., The fact however is that in Jainism the positive aspect also has also
been stressed. That is why Jainism urges its householders to always strive
(i) to follow the practice of giving Dana, i.e.,
religious gifts or charity, (ii) to organize welfare activities for the benefit
not only of the weaker sections of society but also of animals, birds, etc.,
and (iii) to inculcate the spirit of toleration towards the followers of other
faiths or religions.
Tattvartha Sutra recommends
charity because in giving one's belongings to others one exercises control over
his greed which is a form of Himsa. In
Purusharthasiddhi-upaya it is said: "In making a gift one gets over greed,
which is a form of Himsa, hence gifts made to worthy recipients amount to a
renunciation of Himsa. In the same text it is further stated that a person
automatically becomes greedy if he does not give charity to worthy guests. With
a view to raising the standard of giving gifts and in turn of Ahimsa, it is laid down that the donor
must have following seven qualities:
- Aihika-phala-anapeksha, i.e., he must not expect any reward in this world in exchange of gifts.
- Kshanti, i.e., he should have forbearance and should give calmly and without anger (which means the donor should not get excited if an unexpected or untoward thing happens while he was engaged in the pious act of giving gifts).
- Muditva, i.e., he must possess feelings of happiness and have joyous appearance at the time of giving gifts.
- Nishkapatata, i.e., he must act in all sincerity and should give without deceit.
- Anasuyatva, i.e., he should have no feelings of jealousy or envy.
- Avishaditva, i.e., he should not have any feelings of sorrow or repentance.
- Nirahankaritva, i.e., he should not have any sense of pride in giving gifts as pride
The donees or the recipients termed as
Patrass are classified into three categories, viz.
- Supatras i.e., good donees (those who are having right belief and engaged in practicing vows),
- Kupatras, i.e., deficient donees (those who have right conduct but wrong belief), and
- Apatras, i.e., unworthy donees (those who have neither right conduct nor right belief).
Obviously, giving Dana to the
Supatras is highly recommended; to the Kupatras is not encouraged and to the
Apatras is definitely forbidden as there is no merit in giving them anything.
On the basis of various
conditions laid down for giving Dana pertaining to the qualifications of the
donors and the donees, Dana is classified into three types as follows:
- Sattvika Dana, i.e., virtuous or righteous gift, is the gift offered to a worthy donee by a donor possessing the seven Datr-gunas, i.e., qualifications of a good donor.
- Rajasa Dana, i.e., passionate or emotional gift, offered in self-aggrandizement for monetary display and in deference to the opinion of others.
- Tamasa Dana, i.e., vicious gift, is the gift offered through the agency of slaves or servants without considering whether the recipient is worthy or unworthy and without showing marks of respect.
Of these three types of Danas,
the Sattivika Dana is regarded as the Uttama Dana, i.e., the best gift, the
Rajasa Dana as the Madhyama Dana, i.e., the moderate or the secondary gift and
the Tamsa Dana as the Jaghanya Dana, i.e., the worst or detestable gift.
It is not necessary that the
Dana should be a large one. On the
contrary, the householders are advised to extend even small gifts but they
should take care that these small gifts are given to the deserving persons.
Such a small gift is praised in the standard sacred Jain work "Ratnakaranda
Sravakachara" in the following words: "Even a small Dana (gift) given
to a patra (proper or suitable donee), bears much desirable fruit for souls in
the fullness of time, just as the (tiny) seed of the (Indian) fig tree, sown in
(good) soil, produces (a tree, casting) magnificent shade".
According to another
classification dana could be of two types viz., Patra-Dana and Karuna-Dana. The
Patra-Dana means gifts made with respect and devotion to worthy recipients and
in accordance with the conditions laid down. Such worthy recipients are
generally the Jaina householders and ascetics who have right belief and are
continuously engrossed in practicing vows prescribed for their stage in life.
Karuna-Dana means gifts made out of compassion to any one who deserves it,
being hungry, thirsty, diseased, distressed, disabled or helpless. Such a
Karuna-Dana is of four kinds:
- Ahara-Dana, i.e., gift of food,
- Aushadhi-Dana, i.e., gift of medicines,
- Abhaya-Dana, i.e., gift of shelter, protection from danger, attack, intimidation, or threat, and
- Sastra-Dana or Vidya-Dana, i.e., gift of books, imparting of useful and beneficial knowledge,.
These
four gifts together are formed as "Chaturvidha-Dana", i.e., four-fold
charity and it has been enjoined on the householders that they should make
special efforts to give these charities to the needy. The first kind of
charity, i.e., Ahara-Dana, has great value in the practice of Ahimsa. The Jaina
scriptures have greatly valued the other three gifts too.
The Jaina
householders for several centuries have made it one of their cardinal
principles to give these four gifts to all persons who are in need of such
help. In fact, this help has also been extended to the protection and
well-being of insects, birds and animals. Jainas have established alms-houses,
rest-houses, dispensaries and educational institutions. Along with the
dispensaries for men, the Jainas have been conducting special institutions
known as Pinjarapols for the protection and care of helpless and decrepit
animals and birds. In unusual times of flood and famine these Pinjarapols have
been carrying out various activities for animal protection. There is hardly any
town or village
of Gujarat
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