The Ladder of Spiritual Ascent According to Jainism

            In the mystic literature of almost all the major religions of the world, the stages through which a spiritual aspirant advances from the lowest to the highest level of spiritual attainment are found described in greater or lesser detail. Apart from their theoretical importance, such descriptions have great practical value. They help an aspirant to assess his progress, to determine where he stands on the ladder of perfection, to see the next step ahead and to undertake necessary means to climb on to it. However, the descriptions of spiritual unfolding vary from one religion to another, and even from one author to another, since they depend upon the spiritual technique employed. For example, the progress of a spiritual aspirant practising the Yoga of Patanjali is assessed according to the depth of concentration achieved, while the devotional schools determine a soul’s progress according to its proximity to the Lord. Jainism lays great stress on moral life and conquest of passions. The progress in this religion, therefore, is determined on the basis of the degree of moral perfection achieved.

            According to Jainism, each soul is inherently pure, conscious, blissful, omniscient and omnipotent; but, owning to past karmas, its inherent perfection is concealed. The task before the aspirant is to prevent the accumulation of new karmas (samvara) and to remove the already accumulated ones (nirjara). To the extent the karmic covering is made thinner, the light of the soul shines forth, just as the sun shines with all its glory the moment fog is removed. Since karmas are also responsible for moral imperfections, spiritual progress is determined by the extent of the removal of karmic impurities. A brief account of the karmas as described in Jainism is therefore imperative in this context.

Karmas according to Jainism(1)

            Karmas are classified into eight main types, four of which are ghatin or obscuring and four aghatin or non-obscuring. The four ghatin karmas are jnanavaraniya, darsanavaraniya, mohaniya and antaraya; they obstruct the soul’s infinite knowledge, faith, bliss and power respectively. The four aghatin karmas are ayus, nama, gota and vedana; they determine the soul’s longevity (period of embodiment), personality, species and the experience of pleasure and pain in a given span of life; they however, do not obstruct the soul’s perfection. From the point of view of spiritual ascent, mohaniya karmas are the most important. These are twenty-eight in number and are classified into two main categories: darsana mohaniya and caritra mohaniya. The darsana mohaniya, three in number, obstruct the faith and right attitude of the soul and are responsible for keeping it at the three lowest rungs of spiritual ladder. The twenty-five caritra mohaniya karmas prevent the soul from following right conduct and are responsible for desires and passions and for various grades of immoral conduct. These are of two types: those responsible for sixteen kasayas and those responsible for nine no-kasayas. There are four basic kasayas (2) or evil tendencies or passions: anger, egoism, deceit, and greed or attachment (Krodha, mana, maya, lobha) (3). Each of these has four degrees.

1.anantanubandhin- intense deep rooted and permanent.

2. apratyakhyani- voluntary and uncontrollable.

3. pratyakhyani- voluntary and controllable.

4. samjvalana- mild, in see form only. When a person neither considers anger etc. as evil nor abstains from acts prompted by them, he is said to have anantanubandhi karma, since it would entail ananta or infinite bondage. Next, although one may not justify one’s evil tendencies, when owing to long-standing habit they become instinctive and uncontrolled, they are said to belong to the second degree known as apratakhyani. When, however, one is able to control them at will, they are called pratyakhyani. Finally, when these passions persist only in their seed form, without external manifestation, they are called samjvalana. The task before the aspirant is to overcome these passions by degrees.

            There are nine no-kasayas, the quasi-passions which can stimulate the production of kasayas or passions. These include three types of sex desires (called veda) and laughter, attachment, aversion, fear, sorrow and hatred (hasya, rati, arati, bhaya, soka, and ghrna). These are eliminated only in the ninth and tenth stages, when most of the kasayas are removed. The progress of the soul from the fourth to the twelfth step in spiritual development is determined by the elimination of caritra mohaniya karmas. In the thirteenth stage the remaining three ghatin karmas are eliminated. Finally the soul ascends to the fourteenth and final stage and attains total freedom when the aghatin karmas too are removed.

            Jain scholars recognize two paths by which spiritual ascent can take place: (a) by destruction (ksaya) and (b) by suppression (upasama) of the karmas. These paths are called ksapaka sreni and upasama sreni respectively. The difference between them become evident in the first four stages and in stages from the seventh to the eleventh. An aspirant traveling by upasama sreni sooner or later slips down to the lower stages.

            It may be pointed out here that there are two views regarding the importance of external renunciation and conduct. According to one view, internal renunciation, purity of intention, nobility of character and knowledge are all important irrespective of purity of action and flawlessness of conduct. One may commit the vilest crime, and yet remain completely free from sin if one is totally unattached (4). On the same grounds, even though a house-holder may not be able to practise moral virtues to the highest perfection, he can still attain liberation. The other view, also held by Jainism, holds that although intention is important, action too is equally important, and perfection cannot be achieved unless both are perfected. Hence a monk alone can attain the higher perfection, although in exceptional cases a householder may also reach the goal. Even in such cases the conduct of the person must be immaculate irrespective of whether he takes monastic vows or not.

            Among those who lay equal stress on both external and internal renunciation, some are of the opinion that external renunciation must be the result of internal renunciation or should follow it. Others hold that one may initially renounce externally and perfect one’s conduct, even before inner perfection is achieved, as an aid and a preliminary step to the latter. It can be safely assumed that Jainism holds the second view.

                Another subject intimately related to spiritual ascent is that of dhyana, or meditation. In Jainism all thinking or dhyana is classified into four types  (5) : arta or sorrowful, raudra or violent, dharma or virtuous and sukla or pure. Of these the first and the second spring from anxiety, anger, violent desires and craving for senses pleasures, and are spiritually degrading. The third consists of purifying, religious thoughts. The fourth is pure concentrated meditation undertaken in very high stages of spiritual development. Each of these four dhyanas has four sub-types.

            With these preliminary remarks, let us now study serially the various steps of spiritual ascent which in Jainism are called guna-sthanas.

Ist stage:Mithyatva gunasthana

            Mithyatva, or a state of ignorance of or perverted attitude towards one’s real nature, duty and aim of life, is described in detail in Jain literature. This is the lowest rung of the ladder and a person standing here cannot be considered a Jain, since he lacks even the basic understanding of the path. He has erroneous notions about reality and mistakes untruth for truth, adharma for dharma and vice-versa. He is extrovert, sensuous and strives for sense-enjoyments which he considers the goal of life. He has no moral guidelines. Psychologically, he is overpowered by desires and passions and possesses to an intense degree anger, greed, egotism, and deceit. Another feature of a person in this stage is bigotry, narrowmindedness and obstinacy regarding his erroneous beliefs. He has either no intellectual capacity to reassess his preconceived notions, or lacks the willingness to modify them.

            Most worldly people belong to this gunasthana. Some may in due course awaken to the right attitude and gradually advance towards perfection. This stage also includes materialists and those who do not accept a spiritual goal of life, though they maybe morally more advanced than mere brutes.

            Right attitude (samyag-darsana), right knowledge (samyag-jnana)and right conduct (samyak-caritra) are the three pillars of Jainism. In the mithyatva gunasthana all these three are obstructed. When right attitude and faith awaken, the individual ascends to the fourth gunasthana.

4^th stage: Avirata-samyag-drsti gunasthana.(6)

            As the name suggests, the individual in this state gains right attitude (samyagdrsti) towards reality and about one’s own nature and aim of life but is not able to abstain from undesirable actions (avivata). This stage marks the beginning of a righteous life and is given great importance in Jainism. The individual in this stage gives up his obstinacy and corrects his erroneous beliefs and notions. He gains right attitude although he is not able to act accordingly. He has right vision but his conduct is not in accord with his faith. He neither abstains from sense pleasures nor desists from causing injury to creatures.

            Samyag-drsti literally means right vision. Its original meaning was right attitude or vision regarding life and about oneself. However, in course of time the meaning changed to ‘right faith’, and thus traditionally samyag-drsti means faith in prophets, saints, scriptures and the tenets of Jainism, without which none can be a Jain  nor can one ascend to the fourth step of the spiritual ladder. This stage can be compared to ‘conversion’ or spiritual awakening and is understandably given great importance in Jainism, as in all other religions. Faith, undoubtedly, is the basis of all spiritual endeavor, and the greater the faith, the more the chances of spiritual advancement. Although a man with strong faith runs the risk of becoming bigoted, shallowness of faith makes one unstable and confused.

            No one can ascend the fourth gunasthana unless he has suppressed or conquered the darsana mohaniya karma and the anantanubandhin quartet of passions. (7) If these are merely suppressed, the individual remains in danger of slipping back to mithyatva. In other words, if one accepts faith blindly, or for some ulterior motive without being convinced of its significance, it will not remain permanent. If, however, faith is backed by deep conviction and understanding regarding the value of moral, higher life, it will remain stable. (8).

3^rd stage: Samyag-mithyatva-drsti gunasthana

            The order of describing the gunasthanas has been deliberately altered here since in spiritual ascent the soul reaches the fourth stage directly from the first and can come to the third and second stages only in descent. Thus the third and the second are stages of decline and can be experienced only after one has ‘tasted’ the right attitude of the fourth stage.

            The third stage is a stage of doubt when an individual vacillates between right and wrong attitudes (samyag-mithya-drsti). Truth and falsehood both appear equally valid and the individual is not able to differentiate between them. Nor is he able to decide whether to lead a life of sense-enjoyment or of self-control and righteousness. According to scholars, this stage of indecision cannot last longer than 48 minutes (antarmuharta) when the individual either ascends to the fourth or descends to the second stage.

2^nd stage: sasvada gunasthana

            This is a momentary stage of transition between the third and first stages when the individual retains the memory of the right attitude experienced in the fourth stage. Individuals in the first and second stages do only the first two types of undesirable thinking. Dharma dhyana is possible only in the third and subsequent higher stages.

5^th stage: desa-virata samyag-drsti gunasthana

            Although numerically the fifth, from the point of view of spiritual aspiration and struggle, this is the first stage. In this stage an individual becomes an avowed householder, a sravaka by taking the twelve vows of a householder. He gives up prohibited and immoral acts and restricts his sense- gratifications and selfish activities. He now labours to control those aspects of the four kasayas which had become instinctive and over which he had no control (apratyakhyani).

6^th stage: Pramatta sarva-virata gunasthana

            At this stage a Jain becomes a true spiritual aspirant. He ascends to a higher stage of moral development. He now spontaneously desists from those sinful practices which he had earlier tried to bring under voluntary control (pratya-khyani). He takes formal monastic vows and becomes a sramana. He is now a sarva-virata, one who abstains from all external sense-gratifications and from causing injury to creatures. But he is still pramatta, not sufficiently careful to avoid occasions of sin or sinful thoughts (pramada) (9). Owing to attachment to the body and obligation to maintain it, he may commit such acts as may cause harm to other living creatures. Evil tendencies and passions (kasayas) persist in subtle form (samjvalana). For example, he may not get outwardly angry but cannot help getting irritating or annoyed mentally. However, a clear concept of the goal and abstinence from evil actions greatly helps him to gain strength for subtler harder struggles ahead. An aspirant at this stage may engage in activities like preaching and writing etc. for the good of others.

7^th stage: Apramatta samyag gunasthana

            This stage is reached when an aspirant, now a monk, is able to detach his consciousness or atman from the gross physical body temporarily, and to relinquish the idea of agentship. He also gains sufficient mental alertness, apramatta, to avoid minor defects and lapses caused by carelessness. However, since identification with gross body is hard to overcome, the aspirant cannot stay longer than 48 minutes in this stage and slips back to the lower one. Most monks live oscillating between these two stages. Ultimately however, the aspirant is able to totally relinquish body-consciousness and ascend to the eighth stage.

            In this gunasthana the aspirant totally gives up all thinking to violence, untruthfulness, theft and hoarding, which constitute for four types of raudra dhyana. He may still engage in arta dhyana, but most of his time is spent in dharma dhyana and its various modifications. He is also able to do the first type of sukla dhyana.

            The journey from the seventh stage onwards proceeds in two ways depending upon whether the subtle passions (kasayas) are suppressed (upasama sreni) or destroyed (ksapaka sreni). During the initial stages, suppression to some extent is inevitable, but sooner or later the aspirant will have to eradicate the subtle deep-rooted passions. If he proceeds on the moral path by the upasama sreni, he will reach the eleventh stage from where he will fall down to the seventh. But if he roots out the passions, he will ascend to the twelfth stage directly from the tenth, from where there is no fall.

8^th stage: apurvakarana gunasthana

            This is a special stage and a very important milestone in the spiritual journey. It is characterized by a unique hitherto unexperienced (apurva) joy and various spiritual realizations consequent on the reduction of karmic coverings. There is no more identification with the body, and among passions only subtle greed and deceit (samjvalana lobha and maya) remain.

            Another special feature of this state is the acquisition of sufficient spiritual energy to undertake the subtle intense struggle ahead. The aspirant realizes in retrospect that the soul’s journey so far had been made possible not so much by its inherent strength- though it had always tried to manifest its inherent powers- but with the help of favourable circumstances. The journey further on will predominantly be through self-effort rather than through destiny. For the first time the aspirant gets a glimpse of the desired goal and feels certain of its attainability.

            The seeker’s spiritual strength and mastery over karma manifest themselves at this stage in the form of a five-fold technique called apurvakarana through which the aspirant rapidly reduces his karmas. The technique consists of:

1. sthitighata- reducing the duration of fruition of past actions (karma vipaka);

2. rasaghata- minimizing the intensity of fruition of actions;

3. guna-sreni- arranging karmas in such a way that their effect can be experienced even before the actual time of their fruition;

4. guna-sankramana- transforming the nature of the effect of karmas, e.g. turning an evil karma to bear an advantageous fruit; and

5. apurvabandha- minimizing the duration and intensity of fruition of karmas being performed in the present time ( kriyamana karma).

9^th stage: anivrttikarana gunasthana

            The aspirant ascends to this stage by suppressing or destroying all lustful desires, which in Jainism are called veda, and all passions except subtle greed.

10^th stage: suksma samparaya gunasthana

            In this stage the remaining six no-kasayas (hasya, rati, arati, bhaya, soka and ghrna or laughter, attachment, aversion, fear, sorrow and hatred) are removed.

11^th stage: upasanta-moha gunasthana

            This unfortunate, dangerous and necessarily impermanent stage is reached when the last of the twenty-eight mohaniya karmas responsible for the subtle greed ( samjvalana lobha) is suppressed. Samjvalana lobha is interpreted by some scholars as deep-rooted attachment to the body, and clinging to life. Since the subtle aspects of evil tendencies are merely suppressed, they reawaken and the aspirant slips back to the seventy stage after 48 minutes.

12^th stage: ksinamoha gunasthana

            Aspirants progressing by annihilating the evil tendencies go to this stage directly from the tenth. This is the stage of moral perfection when all caritra mohaniya karmas are destroyed, and is also called yathakhyata caritra. The soul remains in this stage for 48 minutes only.

13^th stage: sayogi-kevali gunasthana

            During the last part of twelfth stage darsanavaraniya, jnanavaraniya and antaraya karmas are also destroyed and the individual no more remains a struggling aspirant. He becomes a kevali, an omniscient one, and obtains perfect faith, bliss and power. The four aghati karmas, however, remain owing to which physical, mental and vocal activities called yoga continue but which do not entail bondage. A person in this stage is also called arhat or sarvajna and is equivalent to the jivanmukta of Vedanta.

14^th stage: ayogikevali gunasthana

            With the natural exhaustion of aghati karmas which are responsible for the specific body, stipulated duration of life and experiences, the soul attains this stage of perfect freedom. He is now a siddha. The duration of this stage is the shortest, equivalent to the time required to pronounce five short vowels of Sanskrit alphabet. It is called ayogi because there is absence of all physical, vocal and mental activity, which in Jainism is called yoga. This stage compares well with the viheha-mukti of Vedanta.

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Summary

            According to Jainism there are five conditions of bondage: perversity of attitude (mithyatva), non-abstinence from sense-pleasures and violence (avirati), spiritual inertia or carelessness (pramada), passions or evil tendencies (kasaya) and threefold activity of the body, speech and mind (yoga). Of these mithyatva is first to go in the fourth stage of samyag drsti. Lay and monastic vows in the fifth and sixth stages eliminate avirati. Pramada is removed in the seventy stage. The destruction of the four kasayas takes the longest way. Starting from the fourth stage it is completed in the twelfth stage. Finally the threefold yoga ends in the last stage.

            Of the four types of thinking (dhyana), raudra dhyana persists up to the sixth stage. This means that even after taking monastic vows undesirable thoughts may persist. Arta dhyana, another undesirable thinking dominated by sorrow and depression may persist up to the eleventh stage. Dharma dhyana starts in the fourth ( and third) stage and reaches its culmination in the eleventh. The aspirant is able to do the first of the four types of pure thinking (sukla dhyana) in the seventh stage but is able to take up its second type only in the twelfth stage. These two meditations are based on scriptural texts. In the thirteenth stage, the kevali does the third type sukla dhyana, and liberation is attained by the fourth type in the final stage.

            A review of the duration spent in each stage shows that the aspirant stays for the longest period in the fourth, fifth, and sixth gunasthanas. These therefore are given great importance and described in greater detail in Jain scriptures. The eighth, although a very important stage, lasts for a short period only. The five-fold technique described in that stage can be applied repeatedly from the sixth to the tenth stage for the rapid elimination of karmas.

            This brief review may be concluded by reminding the readers that descriptions are necessarily imperfect and these stages are better understood through practice and actual experience.

1. Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jain philosophy (Varanasi: Parsvanath Jain Research Institute, Jainashrama, 1951).

2. Muni Amolakrsiji, Mukti Sopan (Hindi) (hyderabad: Sri Sukhdev Sahayaji Jwalaprasada, 1915).

3. Dr. Sagarmal Jain, Jain Bahadur aur Git ke acara darsano ka tulanatmaka vivecana, 2^nd part (Jaipur: Rajasthan Prakrit Bharati Sansthan, 1982).

References:

1. See chart at the end of the article.

2. Kasaya is generally translated as `passion’. We have, however used both ‘passion’ and ‘evil tendency’ for it.

3. In Jainism the words maya and lobha have connotations which are different from those in Vedanta. Maya means deceit and crookedness of thought, word and deed. Lobha means greed as well as attachment.

4. Cf. Bhagavad Gita 2.38.

5. For details readers are requested to see the article ‘Meditation techniques in Jainism’ in Prabuddha Bharata, February 1985, p.68

6. The second and third stages will be dealt with after the 4^th.

7. In the last analysis, karmas alone are responsible for passions, spiritual inertia and other defects. Hence the karmas responsible for them must be understood wherever not mentioned.

8. None the less, in most cases, faith is blind, and Jains are in no way less bigoted than the followers of other religious faiths. This is indeed paradoxial since none can be a true Jain without being liberal and broad-minded.

9. As many as 37,500 pramadas are described in Jainism.